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values | region stringlengths 5 67 | confidence_score float64 0.6 0.95 | status stringclasses 1
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|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
25 | Andean Civilization Trunk | en | SUCCESSION | Andes / South America | 0.75 | confirmed | 5 | Major Andean civilizations succession: Tiwanaku (c. 500-1000 CE) and Wari (c. 500-1000 CE) were contemporaneous 'horizon' states whose collapse led to regional fragmentation; Chimor (Chimu Kingdom, c. 900-1470) dominated the northern coast until Inca conquest; Tawantinsuyu (Inca Empire, c. 1438-1533) unified the Andes ... | The 'succession' framing oversimplifies: Tiwanaku and Wari were parallel polities with different organizational principles (Tiwanaku: trade/colonization; Wari: military/administrative). The Inca conquest of Chimor (c. 1470) involved deliberate destruction of Chimu administrative capacity. The Spanish conquest (1532-72)... | [
{
"citation": "Kolata, A. 'The Tiwanaku: Portrait of an Andean Civilization' (1993)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Moseley, M. 'The Incas and Their Ancestors' (2001)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Hemming, J. 'The Conquest o... | [
{
"id": 106,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Tiwanaku, centered at Lake Titicaca (modern Bolivia), was one of the two great 'Middle Horizon' states. It exerted influence through trade networks, colonies, and religiou... |
97 | Arakan succession: Dhaññavati → Vesālī → Lemro → Mrauk U (c. 580 BCE – 1785 CE) | en | SUCCESSION | Arakan / Rakhine / Western Myanmar | 0.65 | confirmed | 5 | The successive kingdoms of the Arakan coastal strip (now Rakhine State, Myanmar), representing over 2000 years of continuous polity in a region geographically separated from the Irrawaddy Valley by mountains — extended in v6.99.110 to the Mrauk U kingdom (1430-1785) and its violent end in the Konbaung conquest. The Ara... | Arakanese historical chronology is disputed: early dates for Dhaññavati come primarily from the Arakanese chronicle 'Rājāvaṃsadīpanī' (18th century), which projects the kingdom back to mythological origins. Modern scholarship places the historically attested beginning at c. 370 CE (Vesālī period). The later Lemro perio... | [
{
"citation": "Phayre, A. P. 'History of Burma' (Trübner & Co., 1883)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Gutman, P. 'Burma's Lost Kingdoms: Splendours of Arakan' (Orchid Press, 2001)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Charney, M. W.... | [
{
"id": 335,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
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"description": "Dhaññavati ('Blessed Land'), earliest attested Arakan kingdom according to the Arakanese chronicles. Located in the Kaladan River valley. The chronology is largely legenda... |
90 | Armenian state continuity: Մեծ Հայք → modern Armenia | en | SUCCESSION | South Caucasus / Armenia | 0.85 | confirmed | 1 | Armenian state-formation: from the ancient Kingdom of Greater Armenia (Mets Hayk, -321 to 428), through centuries of suzerainty under Parthia, Rome/Byzantium, and the Seljuks, the medieval Bagratid Kingdom, Cilician Armenia, Ottoman-Persian partition, and modern Armenian Republic (1918-1920 independence, 1991 from USSR... | Armenia is traditionally credited as the first state to adopt Christianity (301 CE under King Tiridates III). The 1915-1923 Armenian Genocide (1-1.5 million deaths) by the Ottoman Empire remains contested by modern Turkey — Armenian recognition campaigns continue globally. The Nagorno-Karabakh conflict (1988-present) r... | [
{
"citation": "Hovannisian, R. G. (ed.) 'The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times' (1997, 2 vols)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 325,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Kingdom of Greater Armenia (321 BCE - 428 CE), founded by Artaxias I under Artashesian dynasty, peaked under Tigranes the Great (r. 95-55 BCE). Became the first state to o... |
80 | Asante Empire → modern Ghana | en | SUCCESSION | West Africa / Asante (modern Ghana) | 0.9 | confirmed | 2 | The Asante (Ashanti) Empire (1670-1957) centered on Kumasi, unified by Osei Tutu I under the Sika Dwa Kofi (Golden Stool) mythology. Controlled the gold and kola trade; fought multiple Anglo-Asante wars (1823-1900). Formally abolished 1900 after British conquest; reconstituted as a traditional authority within independ... | Asante, like other West African states, was deeply involved in the Atlantic slave trade as a supplier (raiding Akyem, Denkyira, and northern territories). After abolition (1807 British), Asante pivoted to 'legitimate commerce' (gold, kola, palm oil). The wars of conquest (1824, 1874, 1896, 1900) involved British siege,... | [
{
"citation": "Wilks, I. 'Asante in the Nineteenth Century' (1975)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "McCaskie, T. C. 'State and Society in Pre-Colonial Asante' (1995)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 289,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Denkyira (c. 1620-1701), the dominant Akan power that Asante displaced. Osei Tutu and Okomfo Anokye unified the subordinate Akan states against Denkyira at the Battle of F... |
43 | Austrian trunk: Erzherzogtum Oesterreich → Oesterreich-Ungarn → Republic of Austria | en | SUCCESSION | Central Europe / Austria | 0.9 | confirmed | 2 | Austrian state-formation: from the Archduchy (1282) through Habsburg expansion, the Austrian Empire (1804), the Austro-Hungarian compromise (1867), collapse in WWI, short-lived First Republic, Anschluss (1938), Nazi Germany, and Second Republic (1945). Habsburg monarchs ruled continuously 1282-1918 — one of Europe's lo... | The 1938 Anschluss is sometimes framed by Austrian narratives as 'occupation' (Opferthese — victim thesis), downplaying enthusiastic Austrian participation in Nazi crimes. Modern Austrian historiography since the 1986 Waldheim affair has increasingly confronted this. | [
{
"citation": "Kann, R. A. 'A History of the Habsburg Empire 1526-1918' (1974)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Judson, P. M. 'The Habsburg Empire: A New History' (2016)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 171,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Archduchy of Austria, granted to Rudolf IV (r. 1358-1365) and formalized by Frederick III (1453). Seat of the Habsburg dynasty from 1282 (Rudolf I's victory over Ottokar I... |
45 | Brandenburg-Prussia-Germany trunk: Mark Brandenburg → Koenigreich Preussen → Weimarer Republik | en | SUCCESSION | Central Europe / Germany | 0.9 | confirmed | 3 | The state-building trunk of modern Germany through the Hohenzollern line: Brandenburg march (1157), elevation to Duchy of Prussia (1525) and Kingdom of Prussia (1701), unification of Germany under Prussia (1871), WWI collapse, Weimar Republic (1919-1933). This is the 'Prussian path' — parallel to the Austrian-led Holy ... | The 'Prussian path' to German unification was led by Bismarck's realpolitik — three short wars (Denmark 1864, Austria 1866, France 1870-71). The French narrative of Prussian militarism and the British/French 'Germany must be contained' framing shaped two world wars. The division of Germany 1945-1990 and the GDR-FRG spl... | [
{
"citation": "Clark, C. 'Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia 1600-1947' (2006)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Kershaw, I. 'To Hell and Back: Europe 1914-1949' (2015)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 175,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Margraviate of Brandenburg, founded 1157 by Albert the Bear. Became Electorate in the 14th century, held by Hohenzollern from 1415. Personal union with Duchy of Prussia 16... |
109 | Brazilian state trunk: Brasil Colônia → Império do Brasil | en | COLONIAL | South America / Brazil | 0.85 | confirmed | 2 | Brazilian state-formation: from the Portuguese colony (Brasil Colônia, 1500-1822), through the independent Empire of Brazil (1822-1889) under the Braganza dynasty, to the republican coup of 1889. The only durable monarchy in independent Latin America. | Brazil was the single largest destination of the transatlantic slave trade — roughly 5 million enslaved Africans were forcibly transported there, more than to any other country — and it was the LAST state in the Americas to abolish slavery (Lei Áurea, 13 May 1888). Both the colony and the Empire rested economically on ... | [
{
"citation": "Fausto, B. 'A Concise History of Brazil' (Cambridge University Press, 1999)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Schwarcz, L. M. & Starling, H. M. 'Brazil: A Biography' (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2018)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
... | [
{
"id": 378,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Portuguese colony from Pedro Álvares Cabral's landfall (1500). Economy built on Atlantic-facing plantation slavery — brazilwood, then sugar (Northeast), then gold and diam... |
33 | Bulgarian state trunk: Първо Българско царство → Vtoro Balgarsko Tsarstvo → Ottoman → Bulgaria | en | SUCCESSION | Balkans / Bulgaria | 0.85 | confirmed | 3 | Bulgarian state-formation: from the First Bulgarian Empire (681-1018, founded by Khan Asparuh), through Byzantine reconquest (1018-1185), Second Bulgarian Empire (1185-1396), Ottoman rule (~500 years), and the modern Bulgarian state from 1878. The chain shows two distinct 'imperial' periods followed by a long gap under... | The Bulgarian 'Yoke' (1396-1878) narrative is politically loaded: Ottoman rule was oppressive in periods (especially the 19th century decline) but Bulgarian identity persisted through the Orthodox Church. The Second Bulgarian Empire's fall at Velbazhd (1330) and Nicopolis (1396) are often nationalist anchors, but the O... | [
{
"citation": "Crampton, R. J. 'A Concise History of Bulgaria' (2005)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Fine, J. V. A. 'The Early Medieval Balkans' (1983) and 'The Late Medieval Balkans' (1987)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 132,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "First Bulgarian Empire (681-1018), founded by Khan Asparuh after the Byzantine-Bulgar Treaty of 681. Christianized under Boris I (864); developed the Cyrillic script under... |
126 | Cambodian state: អាណាចក្រខ្មែរ → កម្ពុជា (Longvek-Oudong) → Indochine française → Kingdom of Cambodia | en | SUCCESSION | Southeast Asia / lower Mekong (Cambodia) | 0.8 | confirmed | 4 | The modern Cambodian state's emergence from French colonial rule: the French protectorate of Cambodia (from 11 August 1863) within French Indochina (from 1887), to the independent Kingdom of Cambodia (9 November 1953). | DELIBERATELY SHORT CHAIN (see ETHICS-017 §4): the Khmer lineage behind modern Cambodia runs Funan → Chenla → Khmer Empire (see the existing Thai/Khmer trunk chain) and then through the post-Angkor Kingdom of Cambodia (Longvek/Oudong, 1431-1863, squeezed between Siamese and Vietnamese suzerainty) — but that post-Angkor ... | [
{
"citation": "Chandler, D. 'A History of Cambodia' (4th ed., Westview Press, 2008)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Osborne, M. 'The French Presence in Cochinchina and Cambodia: Rule and Response (1859-1905)' (Cornell University Press, 1969)",
"url": null,
"sou... | [
{
"id": 438,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "The Khmer Empire (802-1431), the Angkorian state whose capital Yasodharapura was the region's hegemon for six centuries.",
"ethical_notes": "Also heads the Thai/Khmer ... |
39 | Central Maghreb trunk: Regnum Mauretaniae → Numidia → dynasties → Algeria/Tunisia | en | SUCCESSION | North Africa / Central Maghreb (Algeria / Tunisia) | 0.8 | confirmed | 5 | Indigenous Berber polities of the central Maghreb: Numidia and Mauretania, absorbed into Rome, then Vandal, Byzantine, and Islamic rule. Under Islamic rule, the Aghlabids (Ifriqiya), Zirids, Hammadids, Hafsids, and Zayyanids produced distinct North African polities. The region fell under Ottoman regency from 1574 and F... | This chain represents political succession, not ethnic continuity. The indigenous Amazigh (Berber) population persisted through all rulers but is rarely the subject of state histories. The French colonial period (Algeria 1830-1962) involved settler colonialism and a brutal war of liberation (1954-1962) with an estimate... | [
{
"citation": "Abun-Nasr, J. M. 'A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period' (1987)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Cherry, D. 'Frontier and Society in Roman North Africa' (1998)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 161,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Numidian kingdom, confederation of Amazigh tribes in modern Algeria. Peak under Masinissa (r. 202-148 BCE) as a Roman ally against Carthage. Juba II (r. 25 BCE - 23 CE) ru... |
92 | Cherokee continuity: Tsalagi → Indian Territory diaspora | en | SUCCESSION | Southeastern North America / Cherokee Nation | 0.9 | confirmed | 1 | The Tsalagi (Cherokee) people, confederated from c. 1000 CE, developed a syllabary (Sequoyah, 1821), adopted a written constitution (1827), and established the Cherokee Nation under Principal Chief John Ross. Survived the 1838-1839 Trail of Tears forced removal (~4,000 deaths) to Indian Territory (Oklahoma). Today the ... | ETHICS: the Cherokee removal is one of the best-documented cases of ethnic cleansing in US history — John Marshall's Supreme Court rulings (Worcester v. Georgia, 1832) found for the Cherokee, but Andrew Jackson's administration defied the Court. An estimated 4,000 of 16,000 Cherokee died on the Trail of Tears (1838-39)... | [
{
"citation": "McLoughlin, W. G. 'Cherokee Renascence in the New Republic' (1986)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Perdue, T. & Green, M. 'The Cherokee Nation and the Trail of Tears' (2007)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 327,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Tsalagi (Cherokee) confederation, formed c. 1000 CE in the southern Appalachian Mountains (modern Tennessee, North Carolina, Georgia). Adopted European governance forms in... |
12 | Chinese dynastic trunk: Shang → PRC (12 links, 1600 BCE – present) | en | DYNASTY | East Asia / China proper | 0.88 | confirmed | 12 | Twelve-link dynastic trunk of Chinese imperial and post-imperial state forms, from the late Bronze Age Shang at Anyang (traditional dates c. 1600-1046 BCE, archaeologically attested from c. 1250 BCE Anyang phase) through the Zhou, the short brutal Qin unification, the Han consolidation, the Sui reunification after near... | Six structural points of care. (a) The chain is a 'trunk' — it deliberately omits dozens of simultaneous states (Three Kingdoms: Wei/Shu/Wu 220-280; Sixteen Kingdoms; Northern & Southern Dynasties 420-589; Liao 907-1125, Jin 1115-1234, Western Xia 1038-1227 during Song; Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms 907-960) whose ru... | [
{
"citation": "Twitchett, D., Fairbank, J.K. (gen. eds.) (1978-2020). The Cambridge History of China, 15 volumes. Cambridge UP.",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Spence, J.D. (1990). The Search for Modern China. Norton.",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
... | [
{
"id": 41,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Shang dynasty — the earliest Chinese state directly attested by contemporary written sources (oracle-bone inscriptions from Yinxu, the late Shang capital at modern Anyang).... |
2 | Chinese Imperial Dynasties | en | DYNASTY | East Asia | 0.9 | confirmed | 6 | Major dynasties of imperial China (Han → Tang → Song → Yuan → Ming → Qing), with explicit transition_type per change. Sui (581-618) and intermediate dynasties omitted because not yet seeded; this is a highlighted trunk, not a complete dynastic tree. | The traditional dynastic-cycle framework (heaven's mandate / 天命) is itself a piece of Chinese political theology. Transitions classified as REFORM or REVOLUTION here use modern historiographic categories; contemporaries would have framed the same events through 天命. | [
{
"citation": "Cambridge History of China vols. 1-15",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 3,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": null,
"ethical_notes": null,
"entity_id": 104,
"entity_name": "漢朝",
"entity_lang": "zh",
"entity_type": "empire",
"entity_year_start": -206,
"enti... |
44 | Czech/Bohemian trunk: Kralovstvi ceske → Československo → Česko | en | SUCCESSION | Central Europe / Bohemia-Czechia | 0.9 | confirmed | 2 | Czech state-formation: the Kingdom of Bohemia (1198-1918) under Přemyslid, Luxembourg, Habsburg monarchs; Czechoslovakia (1918-1993); Czech Republic (1993-present). Hussite wars (1419-1434) and the Defenestration of Prague (1618) are pivotal moments. Under Habsburg rule (1526-1918), Bohemia was constitutionally a disti... | The 1945-1948 expulsion of Sudeten Germans (~3 million people) is sometimes omitted from heroic narratives of post-war Czech state-formation — this was one of the largest forced population transfers in European history. The 1968 Prague Spring and Soviet invasion, Velvet Revolution (1989), and Velvet Divorce (1993) shap... | [
{
"citation": "Agnew, H. L. 'The Czechs and the Lands of the Bohemian Crown' (2004)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 173,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Kingdom of Bohemia, elevated to kingdom 1198 under Ottokar I. Peak under Charles IV (1346-1378), also Holy Roman Emperor, who founded Charles University (1348). Joined Hab... |
30 | Danish state continuity: Kongeriget Danmark (935-present) | en | SUCCESSION | Scandinavia / Denmark | 0.9 | confirmed | 2 | Denmark has one of the longest continuous monarchies in the world, with Harald Bluetooth's Jelling stones (~965) commemorating the Christianization of the Danes. The realm absorbed Norway (1380-1814) and ruled Norway-Sweden via the Kalmar Union (1397-1523). This chain tracks the Danish polity's continuity through the S... | The Slesvig/Schleswig question (1848-1864-1920) shaped modern Danish-German relations; Denmark lost 40% of its territory and population in the 1864 war. The Kalmar Union narrative is often Danish-centric; Sweden's 1523 exit was a rebellion, not a peaceful succession. Greenland and the Faroe Islands remain part of the D... | [
{
"citation": "Lauring, P. 'A History of the Kingdom of Denmark' (1960)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Jones, G. 'A History of the Vikings' (1968)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 123,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Kingdom of Denmark, traditionally founded by Gorm the Old around 935. Harald Bluetooth (c. 965) Christianized the Danes. The kingdom has existed continuously since, making... |
105 | Deccan dynastic trunk: Satavahana → Chalukya → Rashtrakuta → Western Chalukya → Vijayanagara | en | SUCCESSION | Deccan Plateau / South India | 0.75 | confirmed | 5 | The sequence of major Deccan empires from the Satavahana era through Vijayanagara. Each dynasty typically overthrew or emerged from the ruins of the previous Deccan power, maintaining regional continuity across two millennia. The Deccan was a zone of persistent state-formation connecting North and South India. | South and Deccan Indian history is systematically underrepresented in global historical curricula that focus on North India (Maurya, Gupta, Mughal). The Deccan sequence includes the Chalukya patronage of cave-temple art at Aihole, Badami, and Pattadakal — a UNESCO World Heritage tradition that predates and rivals the b... | [
{
"citation": "Yazdani, G. (ed.) 'The Early History of the Deccan' (1960)",
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Stein, B. 'Vijayanagara' (1989, The New Cambridge History of India)",
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. 'A History of South India' (4th... | [
{
"id": 359,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": 220,
"transition_type": "DISSOLUTION",
"is_violent": false,
"description": "The Satavahana empire fragmented c. 220 CE as regional lords (Ikshvakus, Abhiras, Chutas, Vakatakas) asserted independence. The Deccan entered a ~320-year interreg... |
95 | Diné (Navajo) continuity: Dine Bikeyah | en | SUCCESSION | Southwestern North America / Diné Bikéyah | 0.85 | confirmed | 1 | The Diné (Navajo) people, arrived in the Southwest from the subarctic between 1100-1500. The Long Walk (1863-68) — the forced relocation of 8,500 Diné to Bosque Redondo (Fort Sumner), where 2,500 died — is the foundational trauma. The 1868 Treaty established the current reservation. Today the Navajo Nation (~400,000 en... | The Long Walk (1863-68) was orchestrated by Kit Carson's scorched-earth campaign (1863-64). Of ~10,000 forcibly walked, ~2,500 died at Bosque Redondo before survivors were allowed to return (1868 Treaty). The Navajo language's use by WWII Code Talkers is well-known; less acknowledged is the uranium mining on Navajo lan... | [
{
"citation": "Iverson, P. 'Diné: A History of the Navajos' (2002)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 330,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Diné Bikéyah (Navajoland), the Diné homeland in the Four Corners region (Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Colorado). Diné matrilineal clan-based society. Survived the Long Walk ... |
96 | Early Vietnamese independence: Nhà Ngô → Nhà Đinh → Nhà Tiền Lê → Nhà Hồ | en | DYNASTY | Vietnam / Red River Delta | 0.85 | confirmed | 4 | The first three independent Vietnamese dynasties after the end of Chinese (Tang) rule in 938 CE, preceding the main Đại Việt trunk, plus the brief Hồ interregnum (1400-1407) between Trần and Lê. These dynasties are often omitted from simplified Vietnamese chronologies but represent the foundational period of self-rule. | The distinction between these dynasties and the broader 'Đại Việt' identity is a subject of ongoing historiographic discussion. Vietnamese nationalist narratives sometimes project Đại Việt identity back to Nhà Ngô (939), while Chinese historiography emphasizes the continuity of Chinese cultural influence. The Hồ dynast... | [
{
"citation": "Taylor, K. W. 'A History of the Vietnamese' (Cambridge University Press, 2013)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Whitmore, J. K. 'Vietnam, Hồ Quý Ly, and the Ming' (Yale University Press, 1985)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
... | [
{
"id": 331,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Ngô Quyền defeated the Southern Han Chinese at the Battle of Bạch Đằng River (938), ending a millennium of Chinese rule and establishing the first independent Vietnamese s... |
16 | Eastern Roman (Byzantine) imperial continuity: Imperium Romanum → Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων (27 BC–1453) | el | SUCCESSION | Mediterranean / Anatolia / Balkans | 0.92 | confirmed | 2 | Succession-continuity chain of the Roman Empire as a single juridical and cultural entity through its transition from a pan-Mediterranean polity with co-imperial administration (after the 395 Theodosian partition) to the Eastern-only Roman Empire headquartered at Constantinople after the 476 extinction of the Western i... | Four points of care. (a) The chain terminates juridically at 1453 but the Roman-imperial imaginary persisted for centuries afterward: the Ottoman sultans styled themselves 'Kayser-i Rûm' (Caesar of Rome) after the conquest — Mehmed II explicitly claimed the Roman imperial title, purchased relics of the apostle Andrew, ... | [
{
"citation": "Procopius of Caesarea (d. c. 565). De Bellis, De Aedificiis, Anekdota — primary for Justinianic era.",
"url": null,
"source_type": "primary"
},
{
"citation": "Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos (d. 959). De Administrando Imperio — primary for 10th-century diplomacy and legitimising ... | [
{
"id": 69,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "The Roman Empire from Augustus (27 BC) through the Theodosian partition of January 395, when on Theodosius I's death the empire was divided between his elder son Arcadius (... |
137 | Egyptian pharaonic kingdoms: tꜣ.wy (Old) → (Middle) → (New) | en | SUCCESSION | Northeast Africa / Nile Valley (Egypt) | 0.8 | confirmed | 3 | The three 'Kingdom' high-points of pharaonic Egyptian statehood (Old, Middle, New), each separated from the next by an Intermediate Period of real state collapse and (for the New Kingdom's founding) by foreign Hyksos rule. | This chain links only the three periods of FULL pharaonic statehood and does NOT assert continuous statehood: it is punctuated by the First Intermediate Period (c. -2160..-2055, rival Herakleopolitan and Theban dynasties) and the Second Intermediate Period (c. -1650..-1550), during which the Levantine Hyksos (15th Dyna... | [
{
"citation": "Ian Shaw (ed.), The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press, 2000",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss, David Warburton (eds.), Ancient Egyptian Chronology, Brill (HdO 83), 2006",
"url": null,
"source_type": ... | [
{
"id": 461,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "The Old Kingdom (c. -2686..-2160), the 'pyramid age' of the 3rd-6th Dynasties, ruled from Memphis (Inbu-hedj).",
"ethical_notes": null,
"entity_id": 1056,
"ent... |
40 | English / British state trunk: Kingdom of England → British Empire | en | SUCCESSION | British Isles / England | 0.95 | confirmed | 2 | English/British state-formation: from the unified Kingdom of England (927 under Æthelstan), through the Anglo-Scottish union (1707) that created Great Britain, to the British Empire at its global apex, and the modern United Kingdom. The 1707 Acts of Union formally unified the English and Scottish crowns, both of which ... | ETHICS: the British Empire chain must be read with its victims in view — conquest of Ireland, Scottish Highland Clearances, Indian famines (Bengal 1770, Madras 1876), trans-Atlantic slavery (until 1833), concentration camps in South Africa (1900-1902), Tasmanian genocide (1830s), Jamaica 1865 etc. The 'civilizing missi... | [
{
"citation": "Cannon, J. (ed.) 'The Oxford Companion to British History' (1997)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Ferguson, N. 'Empire: The Rise and Demise of the British World Order' (2003)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Thar... | [
{
"id": 166,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Kingdom of England, unified under Æthelstan (r. 924-939) after defeating Olaf Guthfrithsson at the Battle of Brunanburh (937). Norman Conquest (1066) reshaped the state bu... |
22 | Ethiopian State Trunk | en | SUCCESSION | East Africa / Ethiopian Highlands / Eritrea | 0.7 | confirmed | 4 | Political succession of the Ethiopian-Eritrean highland state tradition: the pre-Aksumite kingdom of D'mt (c. 800-400 BCE), the Kingdom of Aksum (c. 100-960 CE), the Zagwe dynasty (c. 900/1137-1270, builders of the Lalibela rock churches), and the Solomonic Mengist Ityop'p'ya (1270-1974). Merged in v6.99.112 from two p... | Three legitimation myths and one weak link, all declared. (1) The D'mt→Aksum link crosses a ~500-year archaeological gap (D'mt dissolves c. 400 BCE, Aksumite consolidation c. 100 CE): the chain asserts a regional state-tradition succession, NOT documented dynastic continuity — academically contested, hence the chain co... | [
{
"citation": "Munro-Hay, S. 'Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity' (1991)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Phillipson, D.W. 'Ancient Ethiopia: Aksum, Its Antecedents and Successors' (1998)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citat... | [
{
"id": 431,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "D'mt (Daamat), the pre-Aksumite kingdom of the northern highlands (c. 800-400 BCE), with monumental architecture at Yeha. It dissolved c. 400 BCE under unclear circumstanc... |
74 | French state deep trunk: Regnum Francorum → Imperium Francorum → Royaume de France → Republique francaise | en | SUCCESSION | Western Europe / France | 0.95 | confirmed | 5 | French state-formation: from Clovis's Regnum Francorum (481), through Charlemagne's Frankish Empire (800-888), the Capetian/Valois/Bourbon Kingdom of France (987-1792), revolutionary interludes, and the Fifth Republic. One of the longest-continuously-identified polities in Europe despite major institutional ruptures (R... | The French imperial period (1870-1962) ruled ~110 million people outside Europe at peak, with extractive colonialism in Africa, Indochina, and the Caribbean. The Vichy regime (1940-1944) collaborated in the Holocaust; this has been officially acknowledged since Chirac's 1995 speech. The wars of decolonization (Indochin... | [
{
"citation": "Duby, G. 'France in the Middle Ages 987-1460' (1991)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Cobban, A. 'A History of Modern France' (1963, 3 vols)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Furet, F. 'Revolutionary France 1770-18... | [
{
"id": 266,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Merovingian Kingdom of the Franks (481-751), founded by Clovis I after his victory at the Battle of Soissons (486). Christianized c. 496. Succeeded by the Carolingian mayo... |
8 | French state forms: Regnum Francorum → Republique francaise | en | SUCCESSION | Western Europe / France | 0.75 | confirmed | 5 | Trunk of French state forms seeded in AtlasPI: Merovingian Regnum Francorum → Carolingian Imperium Francorum → medieval/early-modern Royaume de France → Republique francaise (1792 onward). The intermediate Napoleonic empires (Premier Empire 1804-14, Second Empire 1852-70), the Bourbon Restoration (1815-30), the July Mo... | This chain is deliberately shortened because several canonical sub-entities (Premier Empire, Restauration, Second Empire, Troisième République as distinct polities) are not yet present in AtlasPI (as of this batch). Presenting the full chain without them would force us either to invent entity names — forbidden by the p... | [
{
"citation": "Furet, F. 'Revolutionary France 1770-1880' (1992)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Jones, C. 'The Cambridge Illustrated History of France' (1994)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Price, R. 'A Concise History of Fr... | [
{
"id": 21,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": null,
"ethical_notes": null,
"entity_id": 431,
"entity_name": "Regnum Francorum",
"entity_lang": "la",
"entity_type": "kingdom",
"entity_year_start":... |
129 | Haitian state: First Empire → Republic of Haiti | en | SUCCESSION | Caribbean / Hispaniola (Haiti) | 0.8 | confirmed | 2 | The Haitian state from independence (1 January 1804) — the only successful slave revolution in history — through Dessalines's First Empire (1804-1806) to the Republic of Haiti, with the 1806-1820 north-south partition and the 1825 French indemnity documented. | Haiti's founding is world-historical: the enslaved people of Saint-Domingue, the most profitable slave colony on earth, defeated France (and Spanish and British interventions) in a thirteen-year revolution (1791-1804) and abolished slavery unconditionally. The transition modelled here is NOT a clean succession: Dessali... | [
{
"citation": "Dubois, L. 'Avengers of the New World: The Story of the Haitian Revolution' (Harvard University Press, 2004)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Dubois, L. 'Haiti: The Aftershocks of History' (Metropolitan Books, 2012)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "... | [
{
"id": 424,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "The first independent Haitian state: independence declared at Gonaïves on 1 January 1804 by Jean-Jacques Dessalines, who was proclaimed Emperor Jacques I in September-Octo... |
127 | Hawaiian kingdom: Aupuni Mōʻī o Hawaiʻi → United States | en | SUCCESSION | Pacific / Hawaiian Islands | 0.85 | confirmed | 2 | The Hawaiian Kingdom (1795-1893), founded by Kamehameha I's unification of the islands, to the armed overthrow of Queen Liliʻuokalani (17 January 1893) backed by US forces, and US annexation (1898). | The 1893 overthrow was an armed coup by a committee of mostly American settler businessmen, succeeding only because US Minister John Stevens landed US Marines from the USS Boston in support — as the United States itself formally acknowledged in the 1993 Apology Resolution (Public Law 103-150), which states the overthro... | [
{
"citation": "Kuykendall, R.S. 'The Hawaiian Kingdom, Vol. 3: 1874-1893, The Kalakaua Dynasty' (University of Hawaii Press, 1967)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Silva, N.K. 'Aloha Betrayed: Native Hawaiian Resistance to American Colonialism' (Duke University Press, 2... | [
{
"id": 420,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "The Hawaiian Kingdom, unified by Kamehameha I (1795, completed 1810), an internationally recognised constitutional monarchy with treaties with the US, Britain and France; ... |
28 | Iberian central trunk: Regnum Visigothorum → Corona de Castilla → Imperio Español → Republica Espanola | en | SUCCESSION | Iberian Peninsula / Spain | 0.85 | confirmed | 4 | Core political succession of the Iberian peninsula's largest state: from the Visigothic kingdom (418-720), through the Christian Reconquista kingdoms (primarily Castile, with Aragon/Portugal as parallel trunks), to the unified Spanish monarchy, empire, and modern Spanish republic. The Al-Andalus caliphate (929-1031) an... | ETHICS: the Spanish 'Reconquista' is a teleological Catholic-centric framing that treats the 780-year Muslim presence as occupation rather than a coherent civilization. Al-Andalus (711-1492) produced its own dynasties, culture, and continuity — see the parallel Iberian Islamic chain. The 1492 'completion' of the Reconq... | [
{
"citation": "Payne, S. G. 'A History of Spain and Portugal' (1973, 2 vols)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Collins, R. 'Visigothic Spain 409-711' (2004)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "O'Callaghan, J. F. 'A History of Mediev... | [
{
"id": 116,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Visigothic kingdom spanning most of the Iberian Peninsula and southern Gaul, Christianized under Reccared I (589). Fell to the Umayyad conquest in 711-720.",
"ethical_... |
29 | Iberian Islamic trunk: Al-Andalus → خلافة قرطبة → ملوك الطوائف → مملكة غرناطة | en | SUCCESSION | Al-Andalus / Iberian Peninsula (Islamic) | 0.9 | confirmed | 3 | Political continuity of Muslim Iberia: from the Umayyad emirate of Córdoba (756), through the Caliphate of Córdoba (929-1031), the fragmentation into taifa kingdoms (1009-1091), and the final Nasrid Emirate of Granada (1238-1492). Parallel to the Christian trunk; neither erases the other. | ETHICS: Al-Andalus is often marginalized in Spanish national narratives as 'occupation' despite 780 years of presence and cultural/scientific flourishing (Maimonides, Ibn Rushd, Ibn Zaydun). The 1492 conquest of Granada was followed by mass expulsions of Jews (1492) and Moriscos (1609) — a cultural and demographic cata... | [
{
"citation": "Fierro, M. 'The Almohad Revolution' (2012)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Kennedy, H. 'Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus' (1996)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Menocal, M. R. 'The Or... | [
{
"id": 120,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "The Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba, declared independent from the Abbasids in 929 under Abd al-Rahman III. Apex of Iberian Islamic civilization: Great Mosque of Córdoba, Mad... |
7 | Imperium Romaniae → Osmanlı İmparatorluğu | en | SUCCESSION | Eastern Mediterranean / Anatolia / Balkans | 0.7 | confirmed | 2 | Political-capital continuity from the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire to the Ottoman Empire via the 1453 conquest of Constantinople. Mehmed II took the Greek title Καῖσαρ Ῥωμαίων (Kayser-i Rûm, 'Caesar of the Romans') and made Konstantinopolis his new capital, reframing the Ottoman polity as the legitimate continuator... | Two views must coexist. (a) Mehmed II's self-proclamation of Kayser-i Rûm is a historical fact: he kept the Ecumenical Patriarchate, appointed Gennadios Scholarios, and cultivated a Roman imperial self-image alongside Islamic caliphal claims; large parts of the Ottoman administrative-fiscal fabric in Rumelia were direc... | [
{
"citation": "Kafadar, C. 'Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State' (1995)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Babinger, F. 'Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time' (1978)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Kaldellis, A... | [
{
"id": 19,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": null,
"ethical_notes": null,
"entity_id": 437,
"entity_name": "Imperium Romaniae",
"entity_lang": "la",
"entity_type": "empire",
"entity_year_start":... |
19 | Indian subcontinent paramount power: Delhi Sultanate → Mughal → British Raj → Republic of India (4 links, 1206–present) | en | SUCCESSION | Indian subcontinent / South Asia | 0.78 | confirmed | 4 | The linear succession of recognized paramount powers controlling the northern Indian heartland (the Delhi–Agra corridor) from the medieval Islamic conquests to the modern republic. Each link replaced the previous as the dominant political authority over the subcontinent's most contested strategic zone. This chain does ... | This chain traces 'paramount power' — the entity with recognized sovereignty over the Delhi political center — not the 'natural' or 'legitimate' ruler of India. The concept of a single legitimate ruler of the subcontinent is itself a political construct, instrumentalized by every chain member (the Delhi Sultans invoked... | [
{
"citation": "Metcalf, B. & Metcalf, T. (2012). A Concise History of Modern India. 3rd ed. Cambridge University Press.",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Stein, B. (2010). A History of India. 2nd ed., revised by D. Arnold. Wiley-Blackwell.",
"url": null,
"source_... | [
{
"id": 80,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Qutb ud-Din Aibak, Turkic slave-commander of Muhammad of Ghor, established independent rule at Delhi in 1206, founding the first of five dynasties (Mamluk, Khalji, Tughlaq,... |
103 | Inner Asian steppe imperial trunk: Xiongnu → Göktürk → Uyghur → Yenisei Kyrgyz | en | SUCCESSION | Inner Asia / Mongolian Plateau / Central Eurasia | 0.72 | confirmed | 4 | The sequence of nomadic confederate empires that dominated the Eurasian steppe from the 3rd century BCE. Each arose in the same geographic core (Mongolian plateau / Inner Asia), typically after the military collapse of the preceding dominant power. The Xiongnu established the institutional template — the supreme khan, ... | Nomadic confederacies are systematically misrepresented in sedentary historiography as purely destructive forces. The Xiongnu, Göktürk, and Uyghur empires maintained sophisticated diplomatic relations with China (including royal marriage alliances and tribute-trade systems that functioned as formalized commerce), suppo... | [
{
"citation": "Di Cosmo, N. 'Ancient China and its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History' (2002)",
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Golden, P. 'An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples' (1992)",
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Barfiel... | [
{
"id": 352,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": 93,
"transition_type": "DISSOLUTION",
"is_violent": true,
"description": "After the Northern Xiongnu were defeated by a joint Han-Xianbei campaign (89 CE) and subsequently destroyed by the Xianbei under Tanshihuai (c. 93 CE), Xiongnu polit... |
89 | Iranian medieval trunk: سامانیان → آل بويه → سلجوق (already chained) → Mongols → Safavid (already chained) | en | DYNASTY | Iran / Greater Khorasan | 0.85 | confirmed | 2 | Post-Abbasid Iranian dynastic succession: the Samanids (819-999) who sponsored the Persian literary renaissance (Rudaki, Ferdowsi's Shahnameh), the Buyids/Buwayhids (934-1062) who controlled Baghdad as Shia protectors of Sunni caliphs, followed by Seljuk and then Mongol rule — these integrate with the existing Iranian ... | The Samanid and Buyid periods represent the 'Iranian Intermezzo' — Persian linguistic and cultural revival under nominally Islamic rule, producing the Shahnameh (completed c. 1010, 50,000 verses). The Buyids' Shi'ism ruling Sunni Baghdad is one of the most interesting religious-political configurations in Islamic histo... | [
{
"citation": "Frye, R. N. 'The Golden Age of Persia' (1975)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Bosworth, C. E. 'The New Islamic Dynasties' (1996)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 323,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Samanid Empire (819-999), centered in Bukhara and Samarkand. Sponsored Persian cultural revival in the Islamic world — the 'Shahnameh' (Book of Kings) by Ferdowsi was comp... |
101 | Iranian power succession: Median Empire → Achaemenid Empire | en | SUCCESSION | Iranian Plateau / Mesopotamia / Anatolia | 0.82 | confirmed | 2 | The transition from Median dominance to Achaemenid expansion. Cyrus the Great, king of Anshan (nominally a Median vassal), overthrew the Median king Astyages in 550 BCE and founded the Achaemenid Empire — which became the largest empire the world had yet seen, stretching from Egypt to the Indus. | The Achaemenid Empire is among the first documented multi-ethnic, religiously tolerant empires in recorded history. The Cyrus Cylinder (c. 539 BCE) describes policies of religious tolerance and repatriation of displaced peoples — including the return of Jewish exiles from Babylon. Western historiography has historicall... | [
{
"citation": "Briant, P. 'From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire' (2002)",
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Kuhrt, A. 'The Persian Empire: A Corpus of Sources from the Achaemenid Period' (2007)",
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Dandamaev, M.A. 'A... | [
{
"id": 347,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": -549,
"transition_type": "CONQUEST",
"is_violent": true,
"description": "Cyrus II (the Great) of Anshan defeated Astyages, the last Median king, c. 550-549 BCE. The surrender was reportedly facilitated by Median nobles defecting to Cyrus, ... |
18 | Iranian state-formation trunk: Achaemenid → Islamic Republic (6 links, 550 BCE – present) | en | SUCCESSION | Iranian Plateau / Greater Iran | 0.82 | confirmed | 6 | The long-duration sequence of major polities claiming sovereignty over the Iranian heartland. This chain traces state succession (control of the Iranian plateau and its administrative apparatus) rather than dynastic continuity — major breaks include Alexander's conquest (330 BCE), the Arab conquest (651 CE), and the Mo... | This chain deliberately omits intermediate Islamic-era Iranian dynasties (Samanid, Buyid, Ghaznavid, Seljuk, Ilkhanate, Timurid, Afsharid, Zand) — each significant but none held enduring pan-Iranian sovereignty comparable to the chain members. Their omission is a scope decision, not a significance judgment. The Arab co... | [
{
"citation": "Axworthy, M. (2008). A History of Iran: Empire of the Mind. Basic Books.",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Daryaee, T. (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 74,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Founded by Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) c.550 BCE after defeating the Median Empire.",
"ethical_notes": "Cyrus Cylinder: first charter of human rights (debated). BUT also... |
9 | Iranian state forms: Safavid → Qajar → Pahlavi → Islamic Republic | en | SUCCESSION | Iran / Persia | 0.8 | confirmed | 5 | Modern Iranian state succession from the Safavid dynasty (which consolidated Twelver Shi'ism as state religion) through the Qajar dynasty, the Pahlavi imperial state, to the Islamic Republic. The Afsharid dynasty (1736-96, Nader Shah) and the Zand dynasty (1751-94, Karim Khan) are historically part of this trunk but ar... | Two points of care. (a) The 1979 transition from the Pahlavi imperial state to the Islamic Republic is marked REVOLUTION with is_violent=true and the deposition of Mohammad Reza Shah is stated plainly — no euphemism. The subsequent consolidation (1979-83) included political executions, the hostage crisis, and the onset... | [
{
"citation": "Matthee, R. 'Persia in Crisis: Safavid Decline and the Fall of Isfahan' (2012)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Abrahamian, E. 'A History of Modern Iran' (2nd ed., 2018)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Amanat, A.... | [
{
"id": 25,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": null,
"ethical_notes": null,
"entity_id": 13,
"entity_name": "دولت صفویه",
"entity_lang": "fa",
"entity_type": "empire",
"entity_year_start": 1501,
... |
42 | Irish polities: Rioghacht na hEireann → British rule → Eire | en | SUCCESSION | British Isles / Ireland | 0.8 | confirmed | 2 | Ireland's political history spans pre-Christian high kingships (Uí Néill), Christian consolidation (5th-6th c.), Viking settlements (9th-10th c.), the Norman invasion (1169), the Lordship/Kingdom of Ireland under English crown (1541), the Act of Union (1801), and independence (1922). This chain focuses on the high-medi... | English/British rule over Ireland (1169-1922) involved conquest, plantation, dispossession, the Great Famine (1845-1852 — ~1 million dead, ~1 million emigrated), and long resistance. The 1998 Good Friday Agreement ended 30 years of 'Troubles' in Northern Ireland but left the island divided. Irish historiography rejects... | [
{
"citation": "Foster, R. F. 'Modern Ireland, 1600-1972' (1988)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Lyons, F. S. L. 'Ireland Since the Famine' (1971)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 169,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "The medieval Kingdom of Ireland — a high kingship with varying levels of effective power, held by Uí Néill, Brian Boru (High King 1002-1014), and others. Fragmented among ... |
91 | Iroquois Confederacy continuity: Haudenosaunee | en | SUCCESSION | Eastern North America / Iroquoia | 0.85 | confirmed | 1 | The Haudenosaunee (Iroquois Confederacy), founded c. 1142 by the Peacemaker (Deganawidah) and Hiawatha, initially uniting Five Nations (Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca). Joined by the Tuscarora (1722) as the Six Nations. The Great Law of Peace (Gayanashagowa) influenced American constitutional thought (Benjami... | ETHICS: the Haudenosaunee's influence on the US Constitution is often understated — Franklin's 1751 letter and the 1744 Albany Congress explicitly drew from Iroquois federalism. The American Revolution (1775-1783) split the confederacy: Mohawks, Cayugas, Senecas, and Onondagas sided with Britain; Oneidas and Tuscaroras... | [
{
"citation": "Tooker, E. 'An Iroquois Source Book' (1985)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Richter, D. K. 'The Ordeal of the Longhouse' (1992)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Johansen, B. E. 'Forgotten Founders' (1982)",
"... | [
{
"id": 326,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Haudenosaunee ('People of the Longhouse'), the Iroquois Confederacy founded c. 1142 by the Peacemaker and Hiawatha. United Five Nations initially (Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga... |
13 | Islamic central lands: Rashidun → Umayyad → Abbasid → Mamluk → Ottoman (632–1922) | en | SUCCESSION | Arabia / Syria / Mesopotamia / Egypt / Anatolia | 0.9 | confirmed | 5 | Five-link trunk of political hegemony over the central Islamic lands (the Fertile Crescent, Egypt, and later Anatolia), from the Rashidun caliphate at Medina and Kufa (632–661) through the Umayyad dynasty at Damascus (661–750), the Abbasid caliphate at Baghdad (750–1258), the Mamluk Sultanate at Cairo (1250–1517, hosti... | Five points of care that the trunk format tends to elide. (a) Every transition in this chain is violent: the First Fitna that founded the Umayyad line involved the assassination of Ali ibn Abi Talib at Kufa in 661 and the forced abdication of al-Hasan; the Umayyad–Husayn conflict culminated in the killing of the Prophe... | [
{
"citation": "al-Tabari (d. 923). تاريخ الرسل والملوك (Tārīkh al-rusul wa-l-mulūk / History of the Prophets and Kings), 40 vols. Eng. tr. SUNY Press 1985–2007.",
"url": null,
"source_type": "primary"
},
{
"citation": "Ibn al-Athir (d. 1233). الكامل في التاريخ (al-Kāmil fī l-Tārīkh / The Complet... | [
{
"id": 53,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "The Rashidun ('rightly guided') caliphate — the four successors of Muhammad recognised by Sunni tradition: Abu Bakr (632–634), Umar ibn al-Khattab (634–644), Uthman ibn Aff... |
110 | Italian unification trunk: Regno di Sardegna → Regno d'Italia | en | SUCCESSION | Italian peninsula / Italy | 0.85 | confirmed | 2 | Italian unification (Risorgimento): the Kingdom of Sardinia (House of Savoy, Piedmont) as the nucleus that unified the Italian peninsula into the Kingdom of Italy (1861), absorbing Lombardy (1859), the central duchies, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (1860), Venetia (1866), and Rome (1870). The Savoyard monarchy lasted... | This chain follows the Savoyard MAIN LINE (Sardinia → Italy); unification was substantially a CONQUEST of the other Italian states by Piedmont-Sardinia, not a voluntary merger, and that is not euphemised here. The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (entity #572, successor to the Kingdom of Naples #424) was conquered in 1860 b... | [
{
"citation": "Duggan, C. 'The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796' (Allen Lane / Houghton Mifflin, 2007)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Riall, L. 'The Italian Risorgimento: State, Society and National Unification' (Routledge, 1994)",
"url": null,
... | [
{
"id": 380,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Kingdom of Sardinia, ruled by the House of Savoy from Turin. Under the liberal premiership of Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour (1852-1861), it became the diplomatic and mili... |
20 | Japanese state-formation deep trunk: Yamato court → post-war Japan (8 links, ~250 CE – present) | en | SUCCESSION | Japanese Archipelago | 0.8 | confirmed | 8 | The full arc of Japanese state formation from the proto-state Yamato court (~250 CE) to the post-1947 constitutional state. This chain extends the existing batch_03 chain (which covers Nara → Meiji Empire) backward to the Yamato period and forward to the present. Unlike the batch_03 chain, this deep trunk includes the ... | This chain compresses 1,700 years of political history into eight links, necessarily omitting significant discontinuities: the Nanboku-cho schism (1336-1392, two rival imperial courts), the Sengoku fragmentation (1467-1568, effective dissolution of central authority), and the Azuchi-Momoyama reunification (1568-1603). ... | [
{
"citation": "Totman, C. (2000). A History of Japan. Blackwell.",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Hall, J.W. (ed.) (1988-99). The Cambridge History of Japan, 6 vols. Cambridge UP.",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Jansen, M.B. (2... | [
{
"id": 84,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "The Yamato court (大和王権, ~250-710 CE) consolidated control over central and western Honshu during the Kofun period (c.250-538). Giant keyhole-shaped burial mounds (kofun) at... |
10 | Japanese state forms: Nara → Meiji Empire | en | SUCCESSION | Japan | 0.9 | confirmed | 7 | Seven-link trunk of Japanese state forms seeded in AtlasPI, from the first permanent capital at Heijō-kyō (Nara, 710) through the Heian aristocratic regime, the three successive shogunates (Kamakura, Muromachi, Tokugawa), the brief Azuchi-Momoyama period of reunification, and the Meiji Restoration that refounded the st... | The chain presents state-form succession, not unbroken constitutional continuity. Two points of care. (a) The Meiji Restoration of 1868 is often framed as a 'restoration' of direct imperial rule; in practice it was a coup by Satsuma-Chōshū domain leaders against the Tokugawa shogunate, followed by the Boshin War (1868-... | [
{
"citation": "Totman, C. (2000). A History of Japan. Blackwell.",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Hall, J.W. (ed.) (1988-99). The Cambridge History of Japan, 6 vols. Cambridge UP.",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Jansen, M.B. (2... | [
{
"id": 29,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": null,
"ethical_notes": null,
"entity_id": 443,
"entity_name": "奈良時代",
"entity_lang": "ja",
"entity_type": "kingdom",
"entity_year_start": 710,
"e... |
77 | Javanese dynastic trunk: Tarumanagara → Kediri → Singhasari → Majapahit → Demak → Pajang → Mataram | en | DYNASTY | Java / Indonesia | 0.85 | confirmed | 7 | Continuous Javanese state-formation: from the Indic Tarumanagara kingdom (358 CE) through the Hindu-Buddhist golden age (Kediri, Singhasari, Majapahit), the Islamic transition (Demak), the Mataram succession (Pajang, Mataram Sultanate). Each transition involved dynastic shifts but territorial/cultural continuity in the... | ETHICS: the Hindu-to-Islamic transition (15th-16th century) is often framed by different communities: Javanese Muslims emphasize syncretic continuity (Wali Sanga saints bridging religions), Balinese Hindus see it as forced conversion, and colonial historians often simplified as 'decline'. The Mataram Sultanate's partit... | [
{
"citation": "Ricklefs, M. C. 'A History of Modern Indonesia Since c. 1200' (2008)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Munoz, P. M. 'Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula' (2006)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 278,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Tarumanagara (358-669 CE), earliest known Indianized kingdom in western Java. Founded by Maharaja Jayasingawarman, used Pallava script, Vaishnavist Hindu. Succeeded by Ker... |
121 | Kandyan kingdom: මහනුවර රාජධානිය → British Empire | en | SUCCESSION | South Asia / Sri Lanka (central highlands) | 0.8 | confirmed | 2 | The Kingdom of Kandy (1469-1815), the last independent Sinhalese kingdom, which resisted Portuguese, Dutch and British attempts for three centuries until the Kandyan Convention (2 March 1815) and the brutal suppression of the 1817-18 Uva-Wellassa rising. | Kandy fell not by battle in 1815 but through an internal crisis exploited by the British: aristocratic factions deposed King Sri Vikrama Rajasinha (of the Telugu Nayakkar dynasty) and signed the Kandyan Convention with Britain. The 1817-18 Uva-Wellassa rebellion against British rule was crushed with scorched-earth repr... | [
{
"citation": "de Silva, K.M. 'A History of Sri Lanka' (C. Hurst / University of California Press, 1981)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Powell, G. 'The Kandyan Wars: The British Army in Ceylon, 1803-1818' (Leo Cooper, 1973)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "acade... | [
{
"id": 408,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "The kingdom of Kandy (Senkadagala/Mahanuwara), from c. 1469 the highland successor of the Sinhalese state tradition; it outlasted the Portuguese and Dutch coastal occupati... |
24 | Kanem-Bornu Trunk | en | SUCCESSION | Central-West Africa | 0.75 | confirmed | 3 | Political succession of the Lake Chad basin state: from the Kanem Empire (c. 700-1380) to its continuation as Bornu (c. 1380-1893), with the unified Kanem-Bornu representing the broader polity. This is one of the longest-lasting African dynasties (Sefuwa/Sayfawa dynasty, c. 700-1846). | The Sefuwa dynasty ruled for over 1,000 years — among the longest-reigning dynasties in world history. Colonial-era historiography systematically undervalued the complexity and duration of African state-building; Kanem-Bornu is a corrective example. The transition from Kanem to Bornu involved the Bulala invasions forci... | [
{
"citation": "Lange, D. 'A Sudanic Chronicle: The Bornu Expeditions of Idris Alauma (1564-1576)' (1987)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Levtzion, N. and Hopkins, J. 'Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West African History' (1981)",
"url": null,
"source_type": ... | [
{
"id": 103,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "The Kanem Empire, centered northeast of Lake Chad, was one of the earliest Sahelian states. Under the Sefuwa dynasty (from c. 700), it became a major trans-Saharan trade h... |
114 | Kingdom of Danhomè: Danhome → colonial France | en | SUCCESSION | West Africa / Bight of Benin (modern Benin) | 0.85 | confirmed | 2 | The kingdom of Dahomey (Danhomè, c. 1600-1904, capital Abomey) from its rise on the Abomey plateau to French conquest in the Second Franco-Dahomean War (1892-1894) and absorption into French West Africa. | Truth in both directions. (1) Dahomey's political economy was deeply built on the Atlantic slave trade: annual military campaigns supplied captives sold at Ouidah, one of the largest slave ports in Africa, and the Annual Customs at Abomey included human sacrifice of war captives — these are documented facts, not coloni... | [
{
"citation": "Bay, E.G. 'Wives of the Leopard: Gender, Politics, and Culture in the Kingdom of Dahomey' (University of Virginia Press, 1998)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Law, R. 'Ouidah: The Social History of a West African Slaving Port, 1727-1892' (Ohio University... | [
{
"id": 393,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Founded on the Abomey plateau c. 1600 (Houegbadja dynasty), Dahomey conquered the coastal kingdoms of Allada (1724) and Whydah/Ouidah (1727), gaining direct access to the ... |
128 | Kingdom of Rarotonga → British Empire | en | SUCCESSION | Pacific / Cook Islands | 0.75 | confirmed | 2 | The Kingdom of Rarotonga (1827-1888), a unified ariki (chiefly) monarchy under Makea dynasty leadership with missionary-influenced written law, to British protectorate (1888), cession (1900) and annexation to New Zealand (11 June 1901). | Typed ANNEXATION with is_violent=false: no war was fought. But 'requested protectorate' must not be over-read as popular consent — Queen Makea Takau and allied ariki petitioned for British protection in 1888 largely to pre-empt feared French annexation (as had happened to Tahiti and was happening in the region); the 19... | [
{
"citation": "Gilson, R. 'The Cook Islands 1820-1950' (Victoria University Press / Institute of Pacific Studies, 1980)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Scott, D. 'Years of the Pooh-Bah: A Cook Islands History' (Cook Islands Trading Corp / Hodder and Stoughton, 1991)",
... | [
{
"id": 422,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "The Rarotongan kingdom formed after 1827 as the island's ariki adopted a unified code of law under London Missionary Society influence, with the Makea Nui line pre-eminent... |
14 | Korean state forms: Silla → Unified Silla → Goryeo → Joseon → Republic of Korea (57 BCE – present) | en | SUCCESSION | Korean peninsula | 0.88 | confirmed | 5 | Five-link trunk of sovereign state forms on the Korean peninsula, from Silla (traditional founding 57 BCE at Saro, in the southeast Jinhan region) through the Three-Kingdom-era Silla, the Unified Silla that absorbed Baekje (660) and Goguryeo (668) with Tang Chinese military assistance (668–935), the Goryeo dynasty (918... | Four points of care. (a) The Korean Empire (대한제국 Daehan Jeguk, 1897–1910) is a sovereign state form between Joseon and ROK that is NOT currently an entity-level record in AtlasPI and therefore not on this chain — this is a gap that the chain flags honestly and that a future entity batch should fill. Proclaimed by Gojon... | [
{
"citation": "Seth, M.J. (2010). A History of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present. Rowman & Littlefield.",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Eckert, C.J., et al. (1990). Korea Old and New: A History. Ilchokak / Harvard UP.",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"... | [
{
"id": 58,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of ancient Korea (with Goguryeo in the north and Baekje in the southwest). Traditional founding in 57 BCE by Pak Hyeokgeose at Saro (modern... |
125 | Lan Xang partition — Champasak line: ອານາຈັກລ້ານຊ້າງ → ອານາຈັກຈຳປາສັກ → French Indochina | en | SUCCESSION | Southeast Asia / lower Mekong (southern Laos) | 0.75 | confirmed | 3 | The kingdom of Champasak (1713-1946), southern successor of Lan Xang, from Siamese vassalage to French annexation: left-bank territories under France in 1893, the kingdom dissolved as an administrative entity on 22 November 1904, the royal title extinguished with Chao Ratsadanay's death in 1946. | Typed ANNEXATION with is_violent=false because the 1904 dissolution was administrative, without battle — but it was an act of colonial coercion within the same Franco-Siamese power play that carved up the Lao lands, and no popular consent existed or was sought. Champasak had already been devastated as a polity for join... | [
{
"citation": "Stuart-Fox, M. 'A History of Laos' (Cambridge University Press, 1997)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Stuart-Fox, M. 'Historical Dictionary of Laos' (3rd ed., Scarecrow Press, 2008)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 437,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Lan Xang (1354-1707), the unified Lao kingdom of the middle Mekong founded by Fa Ngum with Khmer military backing; capitals Luang Prabang (1354-1560) and Vientiane (1560-1... |
124 | Lan Xang partition — Luang Prabang line: ອານາຈັກລ້ານຊ້າງ → ອານາຈັກຫລວງພະບາງ → French Indochina | en | SUCCESSION | Southeast Asia / upper Mekong (Laos) | 0.8 | confirmed | 3 | The kingdom of Luang Prabang (1707-1949), successor of Lan Xang on the upper Mekong, from Siamese vassalage to incorporation as a French protectorate within Indochina after the Franco-Siamese crisis of 1893. | Typed ANNEXATION with is_violent=true: the transfer of suzerainty from Siam to France was imposed by military coercion — the Franco-Siamese War of 1893 (Paknam incident, naval blockade of Bangkok) forced Siam to cede the left bank of the Mekong. Luang Prabang itself was not conquered by French arms; King Oun Kham had a... | [
{
"citation": "Stuart-Fox, M. 'A History of Laos' (Cambridge University Press, 1997)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Ivarsson, S. 'Creating Laos: The Making of a Lao Space between Indochina and Siam, 1860-1945' (NIAS Press, 2008)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "... | [
{
"id": 436,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Lan Xang (1354-1707), the unified Lao kingdom of the middle Mekong founded by Fa Ngum with Khmer military backing; capitals Luang Prabang (1354-1560) and Vientiane (1560-1... |
123 | Lan Xang partition — Vientiane line: ອານາຈັກລ້ານຊ້າງ → ອານາຈັກວຽງຈັນ → Siam | en | SUCCESSION | Southeast Asia / middle Mekong (Laos) | 0.8 | confirmed | 3 | The kingdom of Vientiane (1707-1828), one of the three successor kingdoms of Lan Xang, to its destruction by Siam after Chao Anouvong's war of independence (1826-1828): the city razed, the kingdom abolished, its population mass-deported across the Mekong. | One of the great erasures of Southeast Asian history, recorded here without euphemism: after Anouvong's failed campaign to throw off Siamese suzerainty, Siamese forces razed Vientiane almost completely (1828 — only Wat Sisaket survived among the major temples), abolished the kingdom, and carried out mass deportations o... | [
{
"citation": "Ngaosyvathn, M. & Ngaosyvathn, P. 'Paths to Conflagration: Fifty Years of Diplomacy and Warfare in Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam, 1778-1828' (Cornell SEAP, 1998)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Stuart-Fox, M. 'A History of Laos' (Cambridge University Press... | [
{
"id": 435,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Lan Xang (1354-1707), the unified Lao kingdom of the middle Mekong founded by Fa Ngum with Khmer military backing; capitals Luang Prabang (1354-1560) and Vientiane (1560-1... |
94 | Lenape continuity: Lenapehoking | en | SUCCESSION | Delaware River basin / Lenapehoking | 0.8 | confirmed | 1 | The Lenape (Delaware) people, homeland Lenapehoking covered modern New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware. The 1682 Treaty with William Penn (the 'Walking Purchase' fraud of 1737) and subsequent dispossession drove most Lenape west. Today the Lenape diaspora spans Oklahoma (Delaware Nation, Delaware Tribe of Indi... | The Walking Purchase (1737) is one of the most egregious colonial frauds — the Penn proprietors had long-distance runners cover 65 miles in 1.5 days to claim Lenape lands, invalidating oral agreements. The Manhattan 'sale' (1626) for 60 guilders is a famous oversimplification — the Lenape concept of land transfer diffe... | [
{
"citation": "Richter, D. K. 'Trade, Land, Power' (2013)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Kraft, H. C. 'The Lenape-Delaware Indian Heritage' (2001)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 329,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Lenapehoking, the Lenape homeland in the Delaware-Hudson-Raritan watersheds. Confederated politics among Unami, Unalachtigo, and Munsee language groups. Displacement began... |
117 | Luba empire: Buluba → Congo Free State | en | SUCCESSION | Central Africa / Upemba depression (DR Congo, Katanga) | 0.8 | confirmed | 2 | The Luba empire (Buluba, c. 1585-1889, heartland in the Upemba depression) — one of the great states of central Africa, whose kingship model (bulopwe) shaped the wider Luba-Lunda world — to its collapse in the 1889 succession civil war and absorption by Leopold II's Congo Free State in the early 1890s. | The Luba state was first hollowed out by the east-coast ivory and slave trade (Swahili-Arab and Nyamwezi/Yeke raiders from the 1870s, Msiri's Garanganze state carving off tributaries), then split by the 1889 succession civil war, then absorbed piecemeal by the Congo Free State — whose rule (Force Publique, rubber and i... | [
{
"citation": "Reefe, T.Q. 'The Rainbow and the Kings: A History of the Luba Empire to 1891' (University of California Press, 1981)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Vansina, J. 'Kingdoms of the Savanna' (University of Wisconsin Press, 1966)",
"url": null,
"sourc... | [
{
"id": 399,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "The Luba empire of the Upemba depression, whose sacred kingship (bulopwe) and titled associations (bambudye) organised a network of tributary polities; its political chart... |
98 | Malay peninsula early kingdoms: Langkasuka → Kedah Tua (100 CE – 1136 CE) | en | SUCCESSION | Malay Peninsula / Southern Thailand / Northern Malaysia | 0.6 | confirmed | 2 | The earliest Indianized kingdoms of the northern Malay Peninsula. Langkasuka and Kedah Tua were contemporaneous for much of their existence and represent distinct polities, but both occupied the strategic Kra Isthmus trade corridor connecting the Bay of Bengal to the South China Sea. Kedah Tua eventually evolved into t... | The relationship between Langkasuka and Kedah Tua is debated: they may have been rivals, confederates, or at times overlapping polities. Chinese sources (Liang Shu, 6th century) mention Langkasuka. The chain represents geographic/regional continuity rather than strict dynastic succession. | [
{
"citation": "Coedès, G. 'The Indianized States of Southeast Asia' (University of Hawaii Press, 1968)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Wheatley, P. 'The Golden Khersonese: Studies in the Historical Geography of the Malay Peninsula' (University of Malaya Press, 1961)",
... | [
{
"id": 338,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Langkasuka (c. 100-1474 CE), one of the earliest known polities of the Malay Peninsula. Mentioned in Chinese sources from the 6th century CE as a kingdom that sent envoys ... |
120 | Maratha confederacy: मराठा साम्राज्य → British Empire | en | SUCCESSION | South Asia / Deccan and western India | 0.85 | confirmed | 2 | The Maratha empire/confederacy (1674-1818), from Shivaji's coronation at Raigad to defeat by the East India Company in the Third Anglo-Maratha War and the abolition of the Peshwa (1818). | Standalone chain (see ETHICS-017): the Marathas were the paramount indigenous power of 18th-century India — treating them as a mere stage of the Mughal→British line would erase that. Conquest was by the East India Company (pre-1858), hence the British Empire entity as successor. The confederacy's own expansion was freq... | [
{
"citation": "Gordon, S. 'The Marathas 1600-1818' (The New Cambridge History of India II.4, Cambridge University Press, 1993)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Cooper, R.G.S. 'The Anglo-Maratha Campaigns and the Contest for India' (Cambridge University Press, 2003)",
... | [
{
"id": 406,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "From Shivaji's coronation (1674) the Maratha state rose against Mughal power; by the mid-18th century the Peshwa-led confederacy (Scindia, Holkar, Gaekwad, Bhonsle) was th... |
115 | Merina kingdom of Madagascar: Imerina → colonial France | en | SUCCESSION | Madagascar / Indian Ocean | 0.85 | confirmed | 2 | The Merina kingdom (Imerina, c. 1540-1897), which under Andrianampoinimerina and Radama I unified most of Madagascar in the 19th century, to French conquest: Second Franco-Hova War (1894-1895), annexation (law of 6 August 1896), abolition of the monarchy and exile of Queen Ranavalona III (February 1897). | The French conquest was violent and its aftermath more so: the 1895 expedition took Antananarivo by surprise from the west; the Menalamba ('red shawl') insurgency that erupted in late 1895 was suppressed by Gallieni's 'pacification' through the end of 1897 with summary executions (including the public execution of mini... | [
{
"citation": "Campbell, G. 'An Economic History of Imperial Madagascar, 1750-1895: The Rise and Fall of an Island Empire' (Cambridge University Press, 2005)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Ellis, S. 'The Rising of the Red Shawls: A Revolt in Madagascar, 1895-1899' (Ca... | [
{
"id": 395,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "The Merina kingdom of the central highlands, traditionally dated from Andriamanelo (c. 1540); unified under Andrianampoinimerina (c. 1787-1810) and expanded by Radama I to... |
49 | Mesoamerican Classic-to-Colonial trunk: Teotihuacan → Tōllān → Ēxcān Tlahtōlōyān → Nueva España → Primer Imperio Mexicano | en | SUCCESSION | Central Mexico / Valley of Mexico | 0.85 | confirmed | 6 | Central Mexican state succession: from Teotihuacan (the great Classic-era metropolis, -200 to 550 CE) through the Toltecs of Tula (674-1122), the Aztec Triple Alliance (1428-1521), Spanish colonial Nueva España (1521-1821), to independent Mexico (1821). This trunk represents the political center of gravity in central M... | The 1521 Spanish conquest marked a demographic catastrophe — smallpox, war, and enslavement reduced the indigenous population by 80-90% within a century. Nueva España's 300 years of colonial rule created caste-based society (peninsulares > criollos > mestizos > indigenas) whose structures persist. Mexican independence ... | [
{
"citation": "Townsend, R. F. 'The Aztecs' (2009)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Meyer, M. C. & Sherman, W. L. 'The Course of Mexican History' (2002)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 183,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Teotihuacan ('the place where gods were born'), the great Classic-era Mesoamerican metropolis (c. 200 BCE - 550 CE). Population peaked ~125,000, making it among the larges... |
27 | Mesoamerican → Colonial Mexico Trunk | en | COLONIAL | Mesoamerica / North America | 0.7 | confirmed | 4 | Political succession from the earliest Mesoamerican civilization (Olmeca, c. 1500-400 BCE) through Spanish colonial rule (Nueva Espana, 1521-1821) to independent Mexico. Note: Mesoamerican civilizations did not form a linear chain — the Olmeca, Zapotec, Maya, Toltec, and Mexica (Aztec) were partly overlapping and partl... | The linear 'Olmec -> Aztec -> Mexico' narrative is a drastic simplification that erases the complexity of Mesoamerican civilization: the Maya existed independently for millennia, Zapotec Monte Alban flourished for over a thousand years, and hundreds of other polities existed simultaneously. The Mexica themselves were r... | [
{
"citation": "Coe, M. and Koontz, R. 'Mexico: From the Olmecs to the Aztecs' (7th ed., 2013)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Restall, M. 'Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest' (2003)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Townsend, C... | [
{
"id": 113,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "The Olmeca civilization (c. 1500-400 BCE), centered in the Gulf Coast lowlands (modern Veracruz/Tabasco), is considered the 'mother culture' of Mesoamerica. It produced th... |
88 | Mesopotamian imperial trunk: Sumer → Akkad → Babylon → Assyria → Neo-Babylonia → Achaemenid | en | SUCCESSION | Mesopotamia / Fertile Crescent | 0.85 | confirmed | 7 | Deep-time political succession of Mesopotamian empires: from Sumerian city-states (Eridu, Uruk, Ur) through the Akkadian Empire of Sargon (~2334 BCE), Old Babylonian period (Hammurabi), the Kassite and Middle Assyrian periods, the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the Neo-Babylonian (Chaldean) Empire, culminating in the Achaemenid ... | ETHICS: the 'succession' framing is retrospective — these were politically distinct entities often in conflict. The 'cradle of civilization' framing traditionally centered Mesopotamia/Egypt over equally ancient developments in the Indus Valley, China, and Mesoamerica. Neo-Assyrian imperial violence (systematic deportat... | [
{
"citation": "Van De Mieroop, M. 'A History of the Ancient Near East ca. 3000-323 BC' (3rd ed., 2016)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Roux, G. 'Ancient Iraq' (1992)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 316,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Kengi (Sumer), the earliest urban civilization in Mesopotamia (c. 4500-1900 BCE). Developed cuneiform writing, monumental architecture (ziggurats), irrigation agriculture,... |
21 | Mongol Empire fragmentation: ᠶᠡᠬᠡ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ → Four Khanates (1206–1502) | mn | SUCCESSION | Eurasia (Mongolia / China / Central Asia / Persia / Eastern Europe) | 0.85 | confirmed | 5 | The fragmentation of the unified Mongol Empire into four successor khanates following the death of Möngke Khan (1259) and the Toluid Civil War (1260-1264) between Kublai and Ariq Böke. While the Four Uluses had been assigned as appanages during Genghis Khan's lifetime and formalized under Ögedei, they functioned as sub... | This chain represents one of the largest-scale political fragmentations in world history, affecting populations from Korea to Hungary. Five ethical considerations. (a) The Mongol Empire's founding violence (1206-1260s) produced an estimated 20-60 million deaths — the most catastrophic series of conquests in pre-industr... | [
{
"citation": "Morgan, D. (1986, 2nd ed. 2007). The Mongols. Blackwell.",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Allsen, T. (2001). Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia. Cambridge UP.",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Jackson, P. (2005... | [
{
"id": 92,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "The Yekhe Mongol Ulus (ᠶᠡᠬᠡ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ, 'Great Mongol Nation'), founded at the 1206 Onon River kurultai under Genghis Khan. The empire was partitioned into four appanages ... |
17 | Mongol Empire Yuan branch: ᠶᠡᠬᠡ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ → 元朝 → 北元 (1206–1635) | mn | DYNASTY | Mongolia / North China / Central Asia | 0.9 | confirmed | 3 | East-Asian dynastic branch of the Mongol imperial system: the Yekhe Mongol Ulus (ᠶᠡᠬᠡ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ, 'Great Mongol Nation') founded at the 1206 Onon River kurultai under Genghis Khan (Činggis Qa'an), formally partitioned among Genghis's four sons into the Four Khanates; the East-Asian ulus becomes the Yuan dynasty (大元, 1... | Five points of care. (a) The 1206 founding of the Mongol Empire initiated 60 years of the most extensive and demographically catastrophic conquests in pre-industrial world history. Estimates of total Mongol-conquest mortality range from 20–60 million direct deaths (Matthew White's Great Big Book of Horrible Things assi... | [
{
"citation": "The Secret History of the Mongols (Монггол-ун Нитоуча Тобчиян, c. 1240) — primary for Genghis's life and the early empire.",
"url": null,
"source_type": "primary"
},
{
"citation": "Ata-Malik Juvayni (d. 1283). تاریخ جهانگشا (Tarikh-i Jahangushay / History of the World-Conqueror) —... | [
{
"id": 71,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "The Great Mongol Empire founded at the spring 1206 kurultai on the Onon River, at which Temüjin — having unified the Mongolian steppe tribes through the wars documented in ... |
130 | Montenegrin state: Зета → Црна Гора → Краљевина СХС | en | SUCCESSION | Balkans / Montenegro (Adriatic hinterland) | 0.75 | confirmed | 3 | The Montenegrin state tradition: from the medieval principality of Zeta (Balšić dynasty, 1360-1421) to Montenegro (Crna Gora) under the prince-bishops (vladike, from 1516), the Petrović-Njegoš dynasty (1697-1918), secular principality (1852) and kingdom (1910), until the contested annexation to Serbia/Yugoslavia in 191... | TERMINAL EVENT NOT MODELLED AS A LINK (see ETHICS-017 §5): the chain ends in 1918 because no suitable successor entity exists in the dataset — the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (1918-1929/41) is missing (queued; it is also needed by the Serbian trunk chain), and linking to socialist Yugoslavia (1945-) would be ... | [
{
"citation": "Roberts, E. 'Realm of the Black Mountain: A History of Montenegro' (Hurst / Cornell University Press, 2007)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Pavlović, S. 'Balkan Anschluss: The Annexation of Montenegro and the Creation of the Common South Slavic State' (P... | [
{
"id": 426,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "The principality of Zeta under the Balšić dynasty (1360-1421), successor of Duklja in the Adriatic hinterland; its dataset span ends with the passing of Balšić rule (1421)... |
38 | Moroccan dynastic trunk: الأدارسة → الموحدون → المرينيون → Sa'diyya → 'Alawiyya | en | DYNASTY | North Africa / Morocco | 0.85 | confirmed | 7 | Moroccan dynastic succession: from the Idrisid founders of Moroccan Islam (788), through the Almoravid/Almohad Berber empires, the Marinid, Wattasid, Saadian, and Alaouite dynasties. The currently reigning Alaouite dynasty has ruled since 1631, making Morocco one of the oldest continuous monarchies. | ETHICS: the 'Arab' vs 'Berber' (Amazigh) framing of Moroccan dynasties is contested — the Almoravids and Almohads were Amazigh, but the chain of Arab-origin Idrisids/Saadians/Alaouites is often privileged in nationalist narrative. Morocco's French protectorate period (1912-1956) is briefly absent from this chain but de... | [
{
"citation": "Abun-Nasr, J. M. 'A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period' (1987)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Brignon, J. et al. 'Histoire du Maroc' (1967)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 154,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Idrisid dynasty (788-974), founded by Idris I, an Alid fleeing Abbasid persecution after the Battle of Fakhkh (786). Established the first Muslim state in Morocco, founded... |
93 | Muscogee / Creek Confederacy continuity | en | SUCCESSION | Southeastern North America / Muscogee | 0.85 | confirmed | 1 | The Muscogee (Creek) Confederacy consolidated around 1540 CE as a response to Spanish incursions and epidemics. Comprised of towns (talwas) speaking Muskogean languages — Upper Creek (Alabama-Coosa rivers), Lower Creek (Ocmulgee-Flint). Sided with Britain in the American Revolution; internal split led to the Creek War ... | The 2020 Supreme Court ruling McGirt v. Oklahoma affirmed that much of eastern Oklahoma remains Muscogee reservation under federal law — a landmark for tribal sovereignty. The Creek War (1813-14), sometimes called the Red Stick War, was an internal civil war between traditionalists (Red Sticks) and accommodationists, u... | [
{
"citation": "Saunt, C. 'A New Order of Things: Property, Power, and the Transformation of the Creek Indians, 1733-1816' (1999)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 328,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Muscogee (Creek) Confederacy, c. 1540-1832 in the Southeast US. Complex confederated structure of autonomous towns. Removed to Oklahoma 1832-37; sovereignty reaffirmed by ... |
108 | Myanmar dynastic trunk: Pagan → Toungoo → Konbaung | en | SUCCESSION | Myanmar / Irrawaddy Valley | 0.82 | confirmed | 3 | The three principal Burmese dynastic empires. Pagan unified the Irrawaddy valley and adopted Theravada Buddhism as state religion; Toungoo created the first fully unified Burmese empire extending into Thailand, Laos, and Yunnan; Konbaung succeeded Toungoo and was the dynasty that fought all three Anglo-Burmese Wars bef... | The Konbaung dynasty's wars against Siam (Thailand), Manipur, Assam, and Arakan are recorded primarily from Siamese, British, and to a lesser degree Chinese sources. The Burmese perspective, preserved in the Hmannan Yazawin (Glass Palace Chronicle, 1829) and other royal chronicles, presents a substantially different po... | [
{
"citation": "Lieberman, V. 'Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800-1830' vol. 1 (2003)",
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Aung-Thwin, M. 'The Mists of Ramanna: The Legend That Was Lower Burma' (2005)",
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Harvey, ... | [
{
"id": 369,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": 1297,
"transition_type": "DISSOLUTION",
"is_violent": true,
"description": "The Pagan Empire collapsed after repeated Mongol invasions (1277, 1283, 1287) and the subsequent revolt of Shan princes (the 'Myinsaing brothers') who overthrew th... |
133 | Nepalese state: गोर्खा राज्य → सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल | en | SUCCESSION | South Asia / Himalaya | 0.9 | confirmed | 2 | The Nepalese state from the Gorkha conquest-founded Shah kingdom (1768) to the Federal Democratic Republic declared on 28 May 2008 by the 1st Constituent Assembly, which abolished the 240-year monarchy. | ETHICS-002: the 2008 transition is typed REVOLUTION with is_violent=true - the abolition vote itself (560-4) was peaceful and King Gyanendra left the palace without resistance, but the republic was the direct outcome of the 1996-2006 civil war (~13,000 deaths documented by OHCHR, Nepali government figures to ~17,000; t... | [
{
"citation": "John Whelpton, A History of Nepal, Cambridge University Press, 2005",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "OHCHR, Nepal Conflict Report, 2012",
"url": "https://www.ohchr.org/en/documents/reports/nepal-conflict-report",
"source_type": "primary"
},
{
... | [
{
"id": 447,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "The Shah kingdom founded by Prithvi Narayan Shah's conquest of the Kathmandu valley (1768-69), expanded through the Anglo-Nepalese war (1814-16, Sugauli treaty), ruled 184... |
99 | Nile Valley / Kush dynastic trunk: Kerma → Kush → Napata | en | SUCCESSION | Nile Valley / Nubia / Northeast Africa | 0.72 | confirmed | 3 | The succession of Nubian state-forms from the earliest recorded Kerma culture through the Kushite kingdom, its Napatan phase (including the 25th Dynasty conquest of Egypt), and its final Meroitic phase. These represent one of the world's oldest continuous state traditions outside of Mesopotamia and Egypt, and the longe... | Kush, Napata, and Meroe are often collapsed into a single undifferentiated 'Kushite' entity by Egyptocentric historiography that treats them as footnotes to Egyptian history. Each represents a distinct phase of Nubian state-formation with its own capital, culture, and political logic. The Napatan/25th Dynasty conquest ... | [
{
"citation": "Welsby, D.A. 'The Kingdom of Kush' (1996)",
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Edwards, D.N. 'The Nubian Past' (2004)",
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Török, L. 'The Kingdom of Kush' (1997)",
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Shi... | [
{
"id": 340,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": -1500,
"transition_type": "CONQUEST",
"is_violent": true,
"description": "Kerma was destroyed by the Egyptian New Kingdom (18th Dynasty) under Thutmose I c. 1500 BCE. The region was incorporated into Egypt as 'Kush' for roughly 500 years b... |
104 | North Indian classical continuation: Gupta → Harsha → Gurjara-Pratihara | en | SUCCESSION | North India / Gangetic Plain | 0.78 | confirmed | 3 | The continuation of North Indian imperial forms after the classical Maurya-Shunga-Kanva sequence (already documented in chain id=11). The Gupta Empire is considered the 'Golden Age' of classical Indian civilization; Harsha briefly re-unified the north after Gupta fragmentation; the Gurjara-Pratihara subsequently became... | The Gupta 'Golden Age' framing, while valid for achievements in mathematics (Aryabhata, decimal system), astronomy, literature, and temple architecture, should not obscure that caste hierarchies were simultaneously codified and hardened in this period. Harsha's empire is often romanticized through the account of the Ch... | [
{
"citation": "Thapar, R. 'Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300' (2002)",
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Majumdar, R.C. 'The Age of Imperial Unity' (1951)",
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Wink, A. 'Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World vol. 1' (1990)... | [
{
"id": 356,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": 550,
"transition_type": "DISSOLUTION",
"is_violent": true,
"description": "The Gupta Empire fragmented c. 550 CE under pressure from the Huna (Hephthalite) invasions and the revolt of feudatory kings. The later Guptas became regional ruler... |
11 | North Indian classical successions: Shishunaga → Nanda → Maurya → Shunga → Kanva | en | DYNASTY | North India / Gangetic plain | 0.75 | confirmed | 5 | Five-link dynastic trunk of the classical Magadhan core in the Gangetic plain, spanning roughly 413 BCE to 28 BCE, all centred on Pāṭaliputra (modern Patna) as imperial capital. The Shishunaga dynasty (413-345 BCE) re-established Magadhan power over Avanti; the Nanda dynasty (345-322 BCE) extended rule to a first pan-N... | Four points of care. (a) Dates for all five dynasties are contested; the Puranic king-lists and Buddhist-Jain chronologies diverge by 10-50 years, and the Maurya chronology depends on synchronisms with the Hellenistic Greek sources (Chandragupta = Sandrokottos in Greek sources meeting Alexander and Seleucus). AtlasPI u... | [
{
"citation": "Thapar, R. (2003). The Penguin History of Early India. Penguin.",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Thapar, R. (1997). Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas. 2nd ed. Oxford UP.",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Lahiri,... | [
{
"id": 36,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": null,
"ethical_notes": null,
"entity_id": 592,
"entity_name": "शिशुनाग",
"entity_lang": "sa",
"entity_type": "dynasty",
"entity_year_start": -413,
... |
106 | North Indian Islamic sultanate trunk: Ghaznavid → Ghurid → Mughal Empire | en | SUCCESSION | North India / Afghanistan / Punjab / Gangetic Plain | 0.8 | confirmed | 3 | The successive Islamic dynasties that dominated North India from the Ghaznavid raids (977 CE) through Mughal imperial rule. Each conquered or emerged from the political collapse of the previous North Indian Islamic power. Note: the Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526), which bridged Ghurid and Mughal eras, is not currently a se... | The framing of Islamic governance in India as uniformly destructive (as in colonial and Hindu nationalist historiography) and the counter-framing as purely enlightened (as in some Pakistani nationalist historiography) both distort the documented record. Temple destructions occurred but were episodic, often motivated by... | [
{
"citation": "Wink, A. 'Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World' vols. 1-3 (1990-2004)",
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Richards, J.F. 'The Mughal Empire' (1993, The New Cambridge History of India)",
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Jackson, P. 'The Delhi S... | [
{
"id": 364,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": 1186,
"transition_type": "CONQUEST",
"is_violent": true,
"description": "Mu'izz ad-Din Muhammad of Ghor conquered the last Ghaznavid ruler Khusrau Malik in Lahore in 1186 CE, ending Ghaznavid power in Punjab. The Ghurids had been Ghaznavid... |
31 | Norwegian state: Kongeriket Noreg → Konungsveldið Noregs → Dano-Norwegian union → Norge | en | SUCCESSION | Scandinavia / Norway | 0.85 | confirmed | 3 | Norway's medieval kingdom reached its apex under Haakon IV (1217-1263) with an empire including Iceland, Greenland, the Faroe Islands, Orkney, Shetland, and the Hebrides. The Black Death (1349) devastated the country; the Kalmar Union (1397) and subsequent Dano-Norwegian realm (1523-1814) subordinated Norway to Denmark... | Norwegian nationalist historiography sometimes calls the 1397-1814 period 'the 400-year night' — reductive, as Norwegian law and identity persisted. The Saami indigenous people's history is largely absent from Norwegian state chains; they are not accounted for here. | [
{
"citation": "Danielsen, R. et al. 'Norway: A History from the Vikings to Our Own Times' (1995)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 125,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Kingdom of Norway traditionally founded by Harald Fairhair around 872 at the Battle of Hafrsfjord. Extended its influence to Iceland, Greenland, and the Scottish islands."... |
118 | Oirat–Dzungar trunk: Four Oirat → Dzungar Khanate → Qing conquest | en | SUCCESSION | Inner Asia / Dzungaria / western Mongolia | 0.8 | confirmed | 3 | The western-Mongol (Oirat) state tradition: from the Four Oirat confederation (1399-1634) to the Dzungar Khanate (1634-1755), the last great steppe empire, destroyed by the Qing conquest of 1755-1758. | The end of this chain is a genocide and is recorded as such. After conquering the khanate in 1755 with Amursana's help and then facing his revolt, the Qianlong Emperor issued explicit extermination orders ('Show no mercy at all to these rebels' — trans. Perdue). Between 1755 and 1758 roughly 70-80% of the Dzungar popul... | [
{
"citation": "Perdue, P.C. 'China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia' (Harvard University Press, 2005)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Millward, J.A. 'Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang' (Columbia University Press, 2007)",
"url": null,
... | [
{
"id": 401,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "The Four Oirat confederation (Dörben Oirat) of the western Mongols — Choros, Dörbet, Torghut, Khoshut — dominant on the steppe after the Northern Yuan decline, famously ca... |
5 | Ottoman → Republic of Turkey | en | SUCCESSION | Middle East / Balkans | 0.85 | confirmed | 2 | Ottoman Empire dissolution after WWI (Sevres 1920, Lausanne 1923) into the Turkish Republic. Mandate-era Arab states are successor states but not included here pending richer entity coverage. | The 'successor states' frame elides the Sykes-Picot 1916 colonial division of Arab lands by France/UK. The Treaty of Lausanne 1923 also legitimized the post-Armenian-Genocide demographic reality (1915-23 Armenian, Greek, Assyrian genocides ~1.5M+ killed). Republic of Turkey continues to deny the Armenian Genocide as su... | [
{
"citation": "Findley, C. 'Turkey, Islam, Nationalism, and Modernity' (2010)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Akçam, T. 'A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility' (2006)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 14,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": null,
"ethical_notes": null,
"entity_id": 2,
"entity_name": "Osmanlı İmparatorluğu",
"entity_lang": "tr",
"entity_type": "empire",
"entity_year_start... |
47 | Papal States continuity: Stato Pontificio → Vatican City | en | SUCCESSION | Italian peninsula / Rome / Vatican | 0.9 | confirmed | 1 | Temporal power of the Papacy: the Papal States (756-1870), a central Italian territorial polity ruled by the Pope. Dissolved by Italian unification (1870); the Roman Question was settled only by the Lateran Treaty (1929) creating Vatican City. A peculiar polity — religious leadership + secular sovereignty. | The Papacy's temporal power from 756 (Donation of Pepin) to 1870 involved Inquisitions (Roman 1542, Spanish delegated, Portuguese), participation in the trans-Atlantic slave trade justification (Dum Diversas 1452), and suppression of liberal Italian nationalism. The 1929 Lateran Treaty with Mussolini's Italy preserved ... | [
{
"citation": "Chadwick, O. 'A History of the Popes 1830-1914' (1998)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Duffy, E. 'Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes' (2006)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 179,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Papal States, founded by the Donation of Pepin (756) when the Frankish king granted central Italian territories to the Papacy. Survived 1100+ years until Italian unificati... |
48 | Polish-Lithuanian trunk: Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė → Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodow → Rzeczpospolita Polska | en | SUCCESSION | Central Europe / Poland-Lithuania | 0.9 | confirmed | 3 | The Polish-Lithuanian state: the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1236+) united with the Polish Crown through the Union of Lublin (1569) to form the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów), Europe's largest state by the 16th century. Partitioned out of existence (1772, 1793, 1795) by Russia, Prussia, Au... | The Commonwealth's 'Golden Liberty' democracy was noble-only; peasants were serfs. The 'szlachta' noble class (10% of population) voted the king, but the liberum veto paralyzed decision-making. The three Partitions (1772-1795) erased Polish sovereignty for 123 years — a national trauma. Post-1945 Poland was moved 200km... | [
{
"citation": "Davies, N. 'God's Playground: A History of Poland' (1981, 2 vols)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Stone, D. 'The Polish-Lithuanian State, 1386-1795' (2001)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 180,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Grand Duchy of Lithuania, founded c. 1236 by Mindaugas. Last pagan state in Europe (Christianized 1387). Extended from Baltic to Black Sea under Vytautas (r. 1392-1430).",... |
102 | Post-Alexandrian Hellenistic states: fragmentation of Alexander's empire (323 BCE) | en | FRAGMENTATION | Eastern Mediterranean / Near East / Central Asia | 0.85 | confirmed | 3 | After Alexander III's death (323 BCE), the Wars of the Diadochi (Successor Wars, 322-281 BCE) fragmented his empire into competing successor kingdoms. Three major dynasties stabilized: Seleucids (Asia), Ptolemies (Egypt), and Antigonids (Macedon). This chain documents the political split from a common origin, not a seq... | The 'Hellenistic' period is a historiographic construct coined by Johann Gustav Droysen (1836) to describe Greek cultural diffusion. This framing systematically obscures the resilience and continuation of local cultures — Egyptian (Ptolemaic rulers adopted pharaonic titles), Babylonian (cuneiform scholarship continued ... | [
{
"citation": "Bosworth, A.B. 'The Legacy of Alexander: Politics, Warfare and Propaganda under the Successors' (2002)",
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Sherwin-White, S. & Kuhrt, A. 'From Samarkhand to Sardis' (1993)",
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Grainger, J.D... | [
{
"id": 349,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Seleucus I Nicator secured Babylonia and founded the Seleucid kingdom (312 BCE) after the Battle of Gaza. At peak under Seleucus I and Antiochus III, it controlled most of... |
35 | Romanian principalities → Kingdom → Republic | en | SUCCESSION | Balkans / Romania / Moldova | 0.85 | confirmed | 3 | Romanian state-formation: the medieval principalities of Wallachia (Țara Românească, 1330) and Moldova (Principatul Moldovei, 1346), both Ottoman vassals from the 16th century, united under Alexandru Ioan Cuza (1859) to form Romania (1862). | Transylvania's integration (1918) changed the ethnic balance and is still contested by Hungarian historiography. The interwar 'Greater Romania' included significant Ukrainian (Bessarabia) and Hungarian (Transylvania) minorities. Romania's alignment with Nazi Germany (1940-1944) and the Iași pogroms are significant; Cea... | [
{
"citation": "Hitchins, K. 'A Concise History of Romania' (2014)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Castellan, G. 'A History of the Romanians' (1989)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 375,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Principality of Wallachia (Țara Românească), founded by Basarab I c. 1330 after independence from the Kingdom of Hungary at the Battle of Posada (1330). It produced Vlad I... |
1 | Roman Power Center | en | SUCCESSION | Mediterranean | 0.85 | confirmed | 2 | Power center evolution from the Roman Empire (27 BCE) to the legal end of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire in 1453. The Roman Republic (509-27 BCE) is not yet a separate entity in the DB — it is discussed in description only. The continuity from Western Rome to Byzantium is contested in Western historiography but B... | The 476 'fall of Rome' is a Western European historiographic frame: the Eastern Roman Empire continued for another 977 years. Calling that empire 'Byzantine' (a 16th-c. Western coinage) implies a discontinuity that its inhabitants did not recognize. Conversely, treating Ottoman conquest 1453 as a 'continuation' would b... | [
{
"citation": "Cambridge Ancient History vols. X-XIV; Cambridge Medieval History",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Kaldellis, A. 'Romanland: Ethnicity and Empire in Byzantium' (2019)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 1,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Augustus assumes principate after civil wars (27 BCE). Formally 'res publica restituta' but de facto monarchical reform — the Republic framing is itself imperial propaganda.... |
75 | Russian state deep trunk: Rus' Kyivska → Московское → Российская Империя → СССР → Российская Федерация | en | SUCCESSION | Eastern Europe / Russia | 0.9 | confirmed | 5 | Russian state-formation: from Kievan Rus' (882-1240), through the Mongol-Tatar yoke, the rise of Muscovy (1263-1547), the Russian Empire (1721-1917), the Soviet Union (1922-1991), to the Russian Federation (1991-). The 'translatio imperii' narrative (Russia as Third Rome) shapes much historiography. | ETHICS: Russian historiography contests Ukrainian historiography on whether Kievan Rus' is Russia's direct ancestor or Ukraine's. The Ukrainian narrative emphasizes Kyiv's distinctness; the Russian narrative emphasizes Moscow's succession after Kyiv's destruction (1240). The Soviet period's repressions (Great Terror 19... | [
{
"citation": "Riasanovsky, N. V. 'A History of Russia' (1963, multiple eds)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Plokhy, S. 'Lost Kingdom: A History of Russian Nationalism' (2017)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Service, R. 'A His... | [
{
"id": 270,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Kievan Rus' (882-1240), founded when Oleg the Wise of Novgorod captured Kyiv (882). Christianized under Vladimir the Great (988). Peaked under Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054... |
4 | Sacrum Imperium Romanum → Deutsches Kaiserreich → Deutsches Reich | de | IDEOLOGICAL | Central Europe | 0.7 | confirmed | 3 | Self-proclaimed German imperial continuity. Each successor explicitly invoked the 'Reich' lineage. | WARNING: this chain reflects SELF-PROCLAIMED ideological continuity, not legal/political legitimacy. The Holy Roman Empire (962-1806) was a multi-ethnic feudal/elective construct dominated but not exclusively German. The German Empire (1871-1918) consciously invoked 'Second Reich' framing to claim succession. The Third... | [
{
"citation": "Wilson, P. 'The Holy Roman Empire: A Thousand Years of Europe's History' (2016)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Evans, R. 'The Third Reich in Power' (2005)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 11,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": null,
"ethical_notes": null,
"entity_id": 30,
"entity_name": "Sacrum Imperium Romanum",
"entity_lang": "la",
"entity_type": "empire",
"entity_year_st... |
23 | Sahel Empire Trunk | en | SUCCESSION | West Africa | 0.75 | confirmed | 3 | The three great Sahelian empires that controlled trans-Saharan trade: Wagadou (Ghana Empire, c. 300-1200), Manden Kurufaba (Mali Empire, c. 1235-1600), and Songhai (c. 1430-1591). Each successor empire absorbed the core territories and trade networks of its predecessor while expanding them. | The term 'Ghana Empire' is a misnomer — 'Ghana' was the title of the ruler, not the state's name. The state was Wagadou, centered in modern southeastern Mauritania/western Mali, NOT in modern Ghana (which adopted the name at independence in 1957 as a pan-Africanist gesture). The narrative of 'rise and fall' imposed on ... | [
{
"citation": "Levtzion, N. 'Ancient Ghana and Mali' (1973)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Gomez, M. 'African Dominion: A New History of Empire in Early and Medieval West Africa' (2018)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Conrad,... | [
{
"id": 100,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Wagadou (commonly misnamed 'Ghana Empire') controlled trans-Saharan gold and salt trade from its capital Koumbi Saleh. Arabic sources (al-Bakri, 1068) describe it as fabul... |
132 | Saudi dynastic states: إمارة الدرعية → إمارة نجد → المملكة العربية السعودية | en | DYNASTY | Arabian Peninsula / Najd | 0.8 | confirmed | 3 | The three Saudi-Wahhabi states of the Al Saud: the Emirate of Diriyah (1744-1818, destroyed by the Ottoman-Egyptian expedition), the Emirate of Najd (1824-1891, ended by the Rashidi conquest at Mulayda), and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (proclaimed 1932 after Ibn Saud's 1902-1932 reconquest and unification). | ETHICS-002: every transition in this chain is violent and is recorded as such. The chain is DYNASTIC (same Al Saud house), not an unbroken state: two interregna (1818-1824 under Egyptian occupation after Ibrahim Pasha razed Diriyah and had Imam Abdullah bin Saud executed; 1891-1902 under Rashidi rule with the Al Saud e... | [
{
"citation": "Madawi Al-Rasheed, A History of Saudi Arabia, Cambridge University Press, 2002 (2nd ed. 2010)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Alexei Vassiliev, The History of Saudi Arabia, Saqi Books, 1998",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"c... | [
{
"id": 444,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "The first Saudi state: the 1744 pact between Muhammad ibn Saud and Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab turned the Diriyah town emirate into an expansionist religious-political stat... |
41 | Scottish state: Rioghachd na h-Alba → Union with England → UK | en | SUCCESSION | British Isles / Scotland | 0.9 | confirmed | 1 | Kingdom of Scotland (Alba), founded by Kenneth MacAlpin c. 843 uniting the Picts and the Scots (Gaels). Independent from 843 to 1707 despite English attempts (Wars of Scottish Independence, 1296-1357). Joined England via personal union (1603, James VI becomes James I of England) and formal union (1707). | The 1707 Acts of Union were controversial in Scotland — Robert Burns later wrote 'We're bought and sold for English gold, such a parcel of rogues in a nation'. The Highland Clearances (1780s-1850s) were an internal colonization. The 2014 Scottish independence referendum and subsequent Brexit (2016) reopened the Anglo-S... | [
{
"citation": "Lynch, M. 'Scotland: A New History' (1991)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Devine, T. M. 'The Scottish Nation: 1700-2000' (1999)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 168,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Kingdom of Alba, founded c. 843 by Kenneth MacAlpin as ruler of both Picts and Scots. 'Scotland' in modern English. Fought off Norwegian claims (Battle of Largs, 1263) and... |
34 | Serbian state trunk: Raska → Srpsko Carstvo → Српска деспотовина → Ottoman → Кнежевина Србија → Југославија (СХС → СФРЈ) | en | SUCCESSION | Balkans / Serbia | 0.8 | confirmed | 7 | Serbian state-formation: from the medieval Grand Principality of Rascia (Raška), through the zenith of the Serbian Empire under Stefan Dušan (1346-1371), the fragmenting Serbian Despotate (1402-1459), the long Ottoman period, and eventual revival from 1804 (First Serbian Uprising). Ottoman-era Serbian identity persiste... | Serbian national historiography centers the Battle of Kosovo (1389) as the defining tragedy; more recent scholarship notes Serbian nobles fought on BOTH sides at Kosovo, and the battle was not immediately decisive. The Yugoslav period (1918-2006) is contested — Serb-centric vs federal readings diverge. The 1990s Yugosl... | [
{
"citation": "Fine, J. V. A. 'The Late Medieval Balkans' (1987)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Ramet, S. P. 'The Three Yugoslavias: State-Building and Legitimation, 1918-2005' (2006)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 135,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Grand Principality of Rascia (Raška), the medieval Serbian state under the Nemanjić dynasty from c. 1083. Stefan Nemanja (r. 1166-1196) and his son Stefan the First-Crowne... |
119 | Sikh empire: ਖ਼ਾਲਸਾ ਰਾਜ → British Empire | en | SUCCESSION | South Asia / Punjab | 0.85 | confirmed | 2 | The Sikh empire (Khalsa Raj, 1799-1849) founded by Ranjit Singh from the misl confederacies, to British conquest in the Second Anglo-Sikh War and the annexation of the Punjab (29 March 1849). | A standalone chain by design: grafting the Sikh empire into the Indian paramountcy chain (Delhi Sultanate → Mughal → British Raj) would misrepresent a distinct sovereign state as a stage of the conqueror's lineage (see ETHICS-017). The conquest was by the East India Company (the British Raj entity begins only in 1858),... | [
{
"citation": "Grewal, J.S. 'The Sikhs of the Punjab' (The New Cambridge History of India II.3, Cambridge University Press, 1990)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Singh, Khushwant. 'A History of the Sikhs, Vol. 2: 1839-2004' (Oxford University Press, 2004)",
"url": ... | [
{
"id": 404,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "The Sikh empire of Ranjit Singh (crowned Maharaja at Lahore, 1801; khanate of the Punjab from 1799), a religiously plural state with a Europeanised army (the Khalsa), ruli... |
136 | Sinhalese kingdom trunk: අනුරාධපුර → පොළොන්නරුව → දඹදෙණිය → ගම්පොල → කෝට්ටේ | en | SUCCESSION | South Asia / Sri Lanka (Sinhalese heartland) | 0.75 | confirmed | 6 | The Sinhalese Buddhist monarchy from the Anuradhapura kingdom (from the 5th c. BCE) through its drifting-capital successors to the Kingdom of Kotte, absorbed by Portugal in 1597. The Kandyan kingdom (a branch from 1469) carried the line to 1815. | This is the SINHALESE line only. ETHICS (no false linearity): the northern Tamil Jaffna kingdom (#601) is a PARALLEL polity with its own chain, NOT a subordinate node here; the 1017-1070 occupation of Rajarata is modelled as a FOREIGN Tamil Chola conquest (a node through the existing Chola entity #110), not a Sinhalese... | [
{
"citation": "K.M. de Silva, A History of Sri Lanka, University of California Press, 1981",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "R.A.L.H. Gunawardana, Robe and Plough: Monasticism and Economic Interest in Early Medieval Sri Lanka, University of Arizona Press, 1979",
"url... | [
{
"id": 455,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "The Anuradhapura kingdom (c. 437 BCE - 1017 CE), the long first phase of the Sinhalese state, centred on the dry-zone irrigation civilisation of Rajarata.",
"ethical_n... |
79 | Sokoto Caliphate: Daular Usmaniyya ta Sakkwato → Northern Nigeria | en | SUCCESSION | West Africa / Sokoto Caliphate (northern Nigeria) | 0.85 | confirmed | 2 | The Sokoto Caliphate (1804-1903), founded by Usman dan Fodio's jihad against the Hausa kingdoms, became the largest state in Sub-Saharan Africa in the 19th century. Absorbed the Hausa Bakwai (Seven Hausa States). Fell to British conquest (1903), with Northern Nigeria integrated into colonial Nigeria. | Usman dan Fodio's jihad (1804-1808) was framed as religious reform of compromised Islamic practice but also involved conquest and slavery — the Caliphate had an estimated 2.5 million slaves in the 1890s, making it one of the last major slave-holding polities. British 'indirect rule' co-opted the emirate system, preserv... | [
{
"citation": "Last, M. 'The Sokoto Caliphate' (1967)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Lovejoy, P. E. 'Transformations in Slavery' (2011)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 287,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "The Seven Hausa States (Kano, Katsina, Zaria/Zazzau, Gobir, Daura, Biram, Rano) plus the Banza Bakwai (seven 'bastard' states), established c. 1000 CE. Islamic from the 14... |
131 | Southern Italian kingdom: Regno di Napoli → Regno delle Due Sicilie → Regno d'Italia | en | SUCCESSION | Italian peninsula / Mezzogiorno and Sicily | 0.85 | confirmed | 3 | The southern Italian state tradition: the Kingdom of Naples (1282-1816), merged with Sicily into the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (December 1816) after the Congress of Vienna, conquered in 1860-61 during Italian unification and absorbed into the Kingdom of Italy. | This chain complements the Italian unification trunk (Sardinia → Italy), giving the CONQUERED southern state its own succession line instead of leaving it as an unlinked footnote of the conqueror's chain. The 1860-61 transition was a conquest, not a voluntary merger: Garibaldi's Expedition of the Thousand (May 1860), t... | [
{
"citation": "Davis, J.A. 'Naples and Napoleon: Southern Italy and the European Revolutions, 1780-1860' (Oxford University Press, 2006)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Riall, L. 'The Italian Risorgimento: State, Society and National Unification' (Routledge, 1994)",
... | [
{
"id": 428,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "The Kingdom of Naples, the mainland southern kingdom from the Sicilian Vespers partition (1282) — Angevin, Aragonese, Spanish-viceregal, Austrian and Bourbon phases — endi... |
107 | South Indian Tamil kingdoms trunk: Sangam Chola → Imperial Chola | en | SUCCESSION | Tamil Nadu / South India / Indian Ocean | 0.68 | confirmed | 2 | The Chola dynasty ruled Tamil Nadu in two historically distinct phases: the Sangam-era early Cholas (c. 300 BCE - 300 CE, documented in classical Tamil Sangam poetry) and the Medieval Imperial Cholas (848-1279 CE), who built Chola Nadu into the dominant naval power of the Indian Ocean. | The continuity between Sangam-era and Medieval Cholas is debated — the same dynasty name may reflect a political legitimation claim rather than documented biological descent after the Kalabhra interregnum (~500 years). The Medieval Chola navy's expeditions into Southeast Asia (Rajendra Chola I's raid on Srivijaya, 1025... | [
{
"citation": "Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. 'The Colas' 2nd ed. (1955)",
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Hall, K.R. 'Trade and Statecraft in the Age of the Colas' (1980)",
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Kulke, H. & Rothermund, D. 'A History of India' 4th ed. (2004)",
... | [
{
"id": 367,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": 300,
"transition_type": "DISSOLUTION",
"is_violent": false,
"description": "The early Chola state declined c. 300 CE during the Kalabhra interregnum, when obscure invaders (possibly from the Deccan) displaced the three Tamil crowned dynast... |
51 | Swahili Coast trunk: Miji ya Pwani → Kilwa → سلطنة زنجبار | en | SUCCESSION | East African coast / Swahili world | 0.85 | confirmed | 3 | The Swahili city-states of the East African coast, from the early Miji ya Pwani ('coastal towns', ~800 CE) through the dominance of Kilwa (10th-15th c.), the Portuguese disruption (from 1498), the Omani Sultanate based in Zanzibar (1856-1964), German East Africa (1885-1919), and independence (Tanzania from 1961). This ... | The Swahili Coast is central to Indian Ocean world history — a hybrid Bantu-Arab-Persian civilization often marginalized in African AND Arab historiographies. Portuguese arrival (1498) inaugurated 150 years of sacking and monopolization. The 19th-century Omani Zanzibar ran the last major slave market on the western Ind... | [
{
"citation": "Horton, M. & Middleton, J. 'The Swahili: The Social Landscape of a Mercantile Society' (2000)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Sheriff, A. 'Dhow Cultures of the Indian Ocean' (2010)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 188,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "The 'coastal towns' of the Swahili world — a chain of Bantu-speaking, Islamized trading city-states along the East African littoral. Active from 8th-15th c. CE as nodes in... |
32 | Swedish state: Konungariket Sverige → Finland → modern Sweden | en | SUCCESSION | Scandinavia / Sweden-Finland | 0.9 | confirmed | 4 | Sweden emerged from the Kalmar Union as a distinct state in 1523 under Gustav Vasa. Ruled Finland for ~700 years (until 1809). Lost Finland to Russia in 1809; the Grand Duchy of Finland was a Russian autonomous polity (1809-1917), becoming independent Finland in 1917. | The Swedish-Finnish relationship is often presented as benign; in reality it involved language and religious policies that suppressed Finnish identity. Similarly, the Russian period (1809-1917) oscillated between autonomy and Russification. Finnish independence was contested in a civil war (1918). | [
{
"citation": "Scott, F. D. 'Sweden: The Nation's History' (1977)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Jussila, O. et al. 'From Grand Duchy to a Modern State: A Political History of Finland since 1809' (1999)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 128,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Sweden joined the Kalmar Union in 1397 but the union was marked by Swedish resistance culminating in the Stockholm Bloodbath (1520) and Gustav Vasa's successful rebellion.... |
134 | Taqali and the Mahdiyya: مملكة تقلي → الدولة المهدية | en | SUCCESSION | Northeast Africa / Sudan (Nuba mountains) | 0.7 | confirmed | 2 | The Nuba-mountains kingdom of Taqali, independent for over three centuries, conquered by the Mahdist state: invaded from 1883, its ruler Makk Adam captured in July 1884 (he died in Mahdist captivity); the Mahdiyya itself was destroyed by the British-led Anglo-Egyptian reconquest in 1898-99. | ETHICS-002: the transition is a violent conquest and is recorded as such. Taqali's resistance in the hills was never fully broken - Mahdist control of the Nuba mountains remained contested, and a Taqali lineage re-emerged as a client under the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium; the chain records the 1884 destruction of the in... | [
{
"citation": "Janet J. Ewald, Soldiers, Traders, and Slaves: State Formation and Economic Transformation in the Greater Nile Valley, 1700-1885, University of Wisconsin Press, 1990",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "P. M. Holt, The Mahdist State in the Sudan, 1881-1898, 2... | [
{
"id": 449,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "The kingdom of Taqali in the Nuba mountains (from ~1570), a hill state that preserved independence from Sennar and from Turco-Egyptian Sudan through tribute diplomacy and ... |
3 | Tawantinsuyu → Virreinato del Perú | es | COLONIAL | Andes / South America | 0.9 | confirmed | 2 | Inca empire → Spanish viceroyalty. Republic of Peru (1821-) is discussed in ethical_notes but not yet a separate entity in the DB, so it's not a link node. | The Spanish 'conquest' of Tawantinsuyu (1532-72) involved smallpox-driven demographic collapse (50-90% population loss), execution of Atahualpa (1533) and Túpac Amaru I (1572), forced labor (mita), and systematic destruction of khipu records. The Peruvian Republic of 1821 was founded by criollo elites with limited indi... | [
{
"citation": "Hemming, J. 'The Conquest of the Incas' (1970/2003)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Mumford, J. 'Vertical Empire: The General Resettlement of Indians in the Colonial Andes' (2012)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 9,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": null,
"ethical_notes": null,
"entity_id": 4,
"entity_name": "Tawantinsuyu",
"entity_lang": "qu",
"entity_type": "empire",
"entity_year_start": 1438,
... |
37 | Thai/Khmer Southeast Asian trunk: ហ្វូណន (Funan) → ចេនឡា (Chenla) → អាណាចក្រខ្មែរ (Khmer) → อาณาจักรอยุธยา → กรุงรัตนโกสินทร์ | en | SUCCESSION | Mainland Southeast Asia / Thailand / Cambodia | 0.8 | confirmed | 5 | Mainland Southeast Asian state succession from ancient Indianized polities (Funan, Chenla) through the Khmer Empire (802-1431), to the rise of Thai states (Ayutthaya, Rattanakosin) that supplanted Khmer hegemony. Represents a complex civilizational continuity with ethnic shifts. | The Funan → Chenla → Khmer chain is traditional Cambodian historiography; some recent scholars question whether these were single successor states or multiple contemporary polities. The Thai 'conquest' narrative (Ayutthaya sacks Angkor 1431) sometimes elides earlier Tai migration and integration. The inclusion of Ayutt... | [
{
"citation": "Coedès, G. 'The Indianized States of Southeast Asia' (1968)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Wyatt, D. K. 'Thailand: A Short History' (2003)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 149,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Funan (c. 50-550 CE), earliest known Indianized state of mainland Southeast Asia. Centered on the Mekong Delta, controlled maritime trade between India and China. Adopted ... |
122 | Travancore: തിരുവിതാംകൂർ → Republic of India | en | SUCCESSION | South Asia / Kerala (southwestern India) | 0.85 | confirmed | 2 | The kingdom of Travancore (Thiruvithamkoor, 1729-1949), from Marthanda Varma's consolidation to accession to India (30 July 1947) and merger into the Travancore-Cochin union (1 July 1949). | The transition was formally voluntary but under real coercive pressure, and is typed UNIFICATION rather than CONQUEST or a euphemistic plain 'succession': in June 1947 Dewan C.P. Ramaswami Iyer declared Travancore would remain an independent sovereign state; after an assassination attempt on him (25 July 1947) the Maha... | [
{
"citation": "Menon, V.P. 'The Story of the Integration of the Indian States' (Longmans, 1956)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "primary"
},
{
"citation": "Ramusack, B.N. 'The Indian Princes and their States' (The New Cambridge History of India III.6, Cambridge University Press, 2004)",
"url":... | [
{
"id": 410,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Travancore, consolidated by Marthanda Varma (r. 1729-1758) who defeated the Dutch at Colachel (1741); under British subsidiary alliance from 1795; in the 20th century one ... |
76 | Ukrainian trunk: Rus' Kyivska → Halytsko-Volynske → Hetmanate → Україна | en | SUCCESSION | Eastern Europe / Ukraine | 0.85 | confirmed | 3 | Ukrainian state-formation: the parallel trunk to the Russian narrative, emphasizing continuity of the Ukrainian polity through Kievan Rus', the Galicia-Volhynia kingdom (1199-1349), the Cossack Hetmanate (1649-1764), the 1917-1921 People's Republic, and modern Ukraine (1991-). | Ukrainian historiography's emphasis on continuity from Kievan Rus' to modern Ukraine is contested by Russian narratives that see Moscow as the legitimate successor. The Holodomor (1932-33), recognized as genocide by Ukraine and several other countries, is a defining trauma. The 2014 and 2022 Russian aggressions are the... | [
{
"citation": "Plokhy, S. 'The Gates of Europe: A History of Ukraine' (2015)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Subtelny, O. 'Ukraine: A History' (1988, updated 2009)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 275,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Kievan Rus' (882-1240), with Kyiv as capital — the foundational polity for Ukrainian state identity.",
"ethical_notes": null,
"entity_id": 420,
"entity_name": ... |
46 | Venetian Republic continuity: Serenìsima Repùblega de Venèsia → Italian unification | en | SUCCESSION | Italian peninsula / Venice | 0.9 | confirmed | 1 | The Most Serene Republic of Venice (697-1797) was one of Europe's longest-lived republics — 1100 years of continuous oligarchic governance. Controlled a maritime empire in the Adriatic and Eastern Mediterranean. Fell to Napoleon in 1797 (Treaty of Campo Formio). Eventually absorbed into unified Italy (1866). | Venice is romanticized as a 'merchant republic' but was a rigid oligarchy (after the 1297 Serrata closing of the Great Council, only ~200 families could hold office). Its commercial empire was built on the slave trade (9th-15th c.) and the Fourth Crusade's sack of Constantinople (1204). | [
{
"citation": "Norwich, J. J. 'A History of Venice' (1982)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Lane, F. C. 'Venice: A Maritime Republic' (1973)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 178,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Republic of Venice, traditionally founded 697 with the election of the first doge, Paolo Lucio Anafesto. Maritime-commercial empire across the Mediterranean. 1797 dissolut... |
36 | Vietnamese dynastic trunk: 大越 (Đại Việt) → Nhà Lý → Trần → Lê → Nguyễn → Đại Nam → Việt Nam | en | DYNASTY | Vietnam / Southeast Asia | 0.9 | confirmed | 7 | Core Vietnamese state-formation: from the independent Đại Việt kingdom (968, after millennium of Chinese rule), through the Lý (1009-1225), Trần (1225-1400), Lê (1428-1789), Tây Sơn interregnum (1778-1802), Nguyễn (1802-1945), to the modern Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Remarkably continuous despite Chinese, Mongol, a... | The millennium of Chinese rule (111 BCE - 939 CE) is often minimized in Vietnamese nationalist narrative, but profoundly shaped Vietnamese language, governance, and ideology. The Trịnh-Nguyễn rivalry (1600-1787) effectively partitioned Vietnam for 200 years. The French colonial period (1858-1954) was devastating; the r... | [
{
"citation": "Taylor, K. W. 'A History of the Vietnamese' (2013)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Dutton, G. E. 'The Tay Son Uprising' (2006)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Tucker, S. C. 'Vietnam' (1999)",
"url": null,
... | [
{
"id": 142,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Đại Việt ('Great Viet'), the independent Vietnamese kingdom established 968 under Đinh Bộ Lĩnh after ending a period of fragmentation. This name persisted through multiple... |
116 | Wadai sultanate: سلطنة وداي → colonial France | en | SUCCESSION | Central Africa / eastern Chad (Ouaddaï) | 0.75 | confirmed | 2 | The Wadai sultanate (dar Wadai, 1501-1912, capitals Wara then Abéché), a major Sahelian state astride trans-Saharan trade routes, to French conquest in the Wadai War (1906-1912): occupation of Abéché (June 1909), resistance of Sultan Dud Murra until surrender (1911), last resistance suppressed (1912). | Truth in both directions. Wadai was a significant participant in the trans-Saharan slave trade, raiding southern non-Muslim peoples for captives exported north — a documented fact that French sources then weaponised as the justification for conquest while erasing the violence and forced labour of French colonial rule t... | [
{
"citation": "Nachtigal, G. 'Sahara and Sudan. Vol. IV: Wadai and Darfur', trans. A.G.B. Fisher & H.J. Fisher (Hurst, 1971; orig. 1889)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "primary"
},
{
"citation": "Azevedo, M.J. 'Roots of Violence: A History of War in Chad' (Routledge, 1998)",
"url": null,
... | [
{
"id": 397,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "The Wadai sultanate, founded by the Maba-led Tunjur overthrow tradition (c. 1501 per this dataset; the Abd al-Karim dynasty consolidated in the early 17th century), grew i... |
15 | Western Roman imperial continuity: Imperium Romanum → Regnum Francorum → Imperium Francorum → Sacrum Imperium Romanum → Deutsches Kaiserreich → Deutsches Reich (27 BC–1945) | la | IDEOLOGICAL | Italy / Gaul / Germany / Central Europe | 0.85 | confirmed | 6 | Ideological-continuity chain of the Western Roman imperial imaginary: the Roman Empire (27 BC–AD 476 in the West), the Merovingian Regnum Francorum (481–751), the Carolingian Imperium Francorum (800–888) under Charlemagne as renovatio imperii Romani, the Holy Roman Empire (800/962–1806) traditionally dated from Charlem... | Five points of care that readers of this chain should hold in tension. (a) The 'translatio imperii' thesis — that imperial authority was legitimately transferred from Rome to the Franks in 800 and from the Franks to the Germans in 962 — is a specifically medieval Western Christian legal-theological construction codifie... | [
{
"citation": "Otto of Freising (d. 1158). Chronica sive Historia de duabus civitatibus — the foundational medieval articulation of translatio imperii.",
"url": null,
"source_type": "primary"
},
{
"citation": "Einhard (d. 840). Vita Karoli Magni — primary for the Christmas 800 coronation.",
... | [
{
"id": 63,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "The Roman Empire as constituted by Augustus (27 BC, after the Battle of Actium and the Senate's grant of the title Augustus) and its Western half until the deposition of Ro... |
78 | Yoruba dynastic trunk: Ọyọ́ → Oyo → modern Nigeria | en | DYNASTY | West Africa / Yoruba lands (modern Nigeria-Benin) | 0.85 | confirmed | 1 | The Yoruba imperial tradition: the Old Oyo Empire (c. 1400-1905) dominated the interior, producing the Alaafin kingship, an elaborate Ogboni council, and cavalry-based warfare. Declined through the 19th-century civil wars (Owu War 1821-28, internal succession crises) and British conquest (1897-1905). | ETHICS: Oyo's decline involved participation in the trans-Atlantic slave trade as a supplier state (raiding neighbors for captives). The 19th-century internal wars correlated with the slave-trade boom. British conquest (1897-1905) replaced Yoruba polities with colonial rule; the 1960 Nigerian independence reshaped them... | [
{
"citation": "Law, R. 'The Oyo Empire c. 1600-c. 1836' (1977)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
},
{
"citation": "Peel, J. D. Y. 'Religious Encounter and the Making of the Yoruba' (2000)",
"url": null,
"source_type": "academic"
}
] | [
{
"id": 285,
"sequence_order": 0,
"transition_year": null,
"transition_type": null,
"is_violent": false,
"description": "Ọyọ́ (Old Oyo) Empire (c. 1400-1905), Yoruba kingdom centered in modern southwestern Nigeria. Dominant West African interior power in the 17th-18th centuries, controlling ... |
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