Initial upload: AtlasPI v6.33.0 — 862 entities, 497 events, 55 periods, 94 chains

.gitattributes

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 # Video files - compressed
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README.md

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+---
+license: apache-2.0
+task_categories:
+- question-answering
+- text-retrieval
+- zero-shot-classification
+language:
+- en
+- multilingual
+tags:
+- history
+- geography
+- geojson
+- historical-geography
+- boundaries
+- empires
+- kingdoms
+- ai-agents
+- mcp
+- digital-humanities
+pretty_name: AtlasPI Historical Geography
+size_categories:
+- 1K<n<10K
+configs:
+- config_name: entities
+  data_files: "entities.jsonl"
+- config_name: events
+  data_files: "events.jsonl"
+- config_name: periods
+  data_files: "periods.jsonl"
+- config_name: chains
+  data_files: "chains.jsonl"
+---
+
+# AtlasPI — Historical Geography Dataset
+
+**862 historical geopolitical entities · 490 events · 48 periods · 94 dynasty chains · 110 cities · 41 trade routes**
+
+The first open dataset specifically designed for AI agents working on
+historical geography questions. Apache 2.0 licensed. Includes real GeoJSON
+boundaries from academic sources, not placeholder polygons.
+
+**Temporal range**: 4500 BCE → 2024 CE
+**Geographic coverage**: all inhabited continents (Asia 31%, Africa 18%,
+Americas 17%, Europe 17%, Middle East 11%, Oceania 2%)
+
+## What makes this different from Wikidata/Natural Earth
+
+| | Wikidata | Natural Earth | AtlasPI |
+|---|---|---|---|
+| Historical boundaries | ❌ | ❌ (modern only) | ✅ |
+| Temporal dimension (BCE → 2024) | Partial | ❌ | ✅ |
+| One-call world snapshot | ❌ (SPARQL) | ❌ | ✅ |
+| Cross-referenced dynasty chains | Partial | ❌ | ✅ |
+| Ethical framings per entity | ❌ | ❌ | ✅ |
+| Native-language primary names | Partial | ❌ | ✅ |
+| Free REST API + MCP server | ❌ | ❌ | ✅ |
+| Academic sources per record | Partial | ❌ | ✅ 2,400+ |
+
+## Example use cases for AI agents
+
+1. **"What was the world like in 1250 CE?"** → one API call returns periods,
+   entities, events, cities, chains — all active that year.
+2. **"Find entities similar to the Roman Empire"** → weighted similarity over
+   entity type, temporal overlap, duration, confidence, status.
+3. **"On this day in history (14 July)"** → returns Bastille Day + other events
+   across centuries sharing that date.
+4. **"Compare the Aztec Empire and Mughal Empire"** → side-by-side structured
+   response.
+5. **"Which historical periods did the Byzantine Empire overlap with?"** →
+   returns periods across multiple regions.
+
+## Dataset structure
+
+### `entities.jsonl` (862 records)
+
+```json
+{
+  "id": 1,
+  "name_original": "Imperium Romanum",
+  "name_original_lang": "la",
+  "entity_type": "empire",
+  "year_start": -27,
+  "year_end": 476,
+  "capital": {"name": "Roma", "lat": 41.9028, "lon": 12.4964},
+  "boundary_geojson": {"type": "MultiPolygon", "coordinates": [...]},
+  "boundary_source": "natural_earth",
+  "confidence_score": 0.95,
+  "status": "confirmed",
+  "name_variants": [
+    {"name": "Roman Empire", "lang": "en"},
+    {"name": "Ῥωμαϊκὴ Αὐτοκρατορία", "lang": "grc"}
+  ],
+  "sources": [...],
+  "ethical_notes": "..."
+}
+```
+
+### `events.jsonl` (490 records)
+
+```json
+{
+  "id": 123,
+  "name_original": "Armistice de Compiègne",
+  "name_original_lang": "fr",
+  "event_type": "TREATY",
+  "year": 1918,
+  "month": 11,
+  "day": 11,
+  "iso_date": "1918-11-11",
+  "location_name": "Rethondes, France",
+  "location_lat": 49.4241,
+  "location_lon": 2.9013,
+  "main_actor": "Marshal Ferdinand Foch ...",
+  "description": "...",
+  "confidence_score": 1.0,
+  "ethical_notes": "...",
+  "sources": [...]
+}
+```
+
+### `periods.jsonl` (48 records)
+
+Historical epochs with region scope, historiographic notes, and alternative
+names (e.g., "Dark Ages" → deprecated label for "Early Middle Ages").
+
+### `chains.jsonl` (94 records)
+
+Dynasty / succession chains with explicit transition_type per link (CONQUEST,
+SUCCESSION, REVOLUTION, etc.). No euphemisms.
+
+## Ethical principles baked into the data
+
+- **ETHICS-001**: Primary names in native script (Mēxihcah not "Aztec";
+  Tawantinsuyu not "Inca"; 漢朝 not "Han Dynasty")
+- **ETHICS-002**: Conquests labeled CONQUEST, not softened to "succession"
+- **ETHICS-007**: Event types include GENOCIDE, COLONIAL_VIOLENCE,
+  ETHNIC_CLEANSING — academic terminology, no euphemisms
+- **ETHICS-010**: Trade routes involving slavery flagged explicitly
+
+When using this dataset in downstream models or applications, preserve
+these distinctions. Don't collapse native names to colonial exonyms.
+
+## Access
+
+### Via REST API (no download needed)
+```python
+import requests
+snap = requests.get("https://atlaspi.cra-srl.com/v1/snapshot/year/1250").json()
+```
+
+### Via Python SDK
+```bash
+pip install atlaspi-client
+```
+```python
+from atlaspi import AtlasPI
+client = AtlasPI()
+snap = client.snapshot(year=1250)
+```
+
+### Via MCP server (Claude Desktop / Claude Code)
+```bash
+pip install atlaspi-mcp
+```
+
+## Data sources
+
+- Natural Earth (public domain): ne_110m_admin_0_countries
+- aourednik/historical-basemaps (CC BY 4.0): 54 period snapshots
+- Academic citations: Cambridge Histories, Oxford Handbooks, regional specialists
+
+## Citation
+
+```bibtex
+@dataset{atlaspi2026,
+  title = {AtlasPI: Historical Geography Dataset for AI Agents},
+  author = {AtlasPI Project},
+  year = {2026},
+  url = {https://atlaspi.cra-srl.com},
+  license = {Apache-2.0}
+}
+```
+
+## Links
+
+- **REST API**: https://atlaspi.cra-srl.com
+- **Docs**: https://atlaspi.cra-srl.com/docs
+- **Source**: https://github.com/Soil911/AtlasPI
+- **License**: Apache 2.0

entities.jsonl

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+version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1
+oid sha256:5819d2f18e1cd7a8d87423fab66f3c924e9176dab00216202c85a2ac98c4e8f1
+size 18724341

periods.jsonl

@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+{"id": 1, "name": "Paleolithic", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "paleolithic", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "age", "region": "global", "year_start": -3300000, "year_end": -10000, "confidence_score": 0.85, "status": "confirmed", "description": "The Old Stone Age, characterized by the earliest known use of stone tools by hominids (Homo habilis) through the end of the Pleistocene. Includes the emergence of Homo sapiens ~300,000 years ago and the Upper Paleolithic cultural revolution (~50,000-10,000 BCE).", "historiographic_note": "Traditional division into Lower, Middle, and Upper Paleolithic. The exact start depends on hominid/tool definitions.", "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Klein, R. G. (2009). The Human Career: Human Biological and Cultural Origins. University of Chicago Press."}]}
+{"id": 52, "name": "Aboriginal Australian Continuous Culture", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "aboriginal-australian-continuous", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "era", "region": "oceania", "year_start": -65000, "year_end": 1788, "confidence_score": 0.85, "status": "confirmed", "description": "The continuous Aboriginal cultural presence on the Australian continent from ~65,000 years BP (the earliest securely dated human occupation at Madjedbebe, Arnhem Land) until European invasion at Sydney Cove (26 January 1788). Represents possibly the oldest living cultural tradition on Earth — Aboriginal languages, Dreaming stories, ecological knowledge, and rock art extend back tens of millennia.", "historiographic_note": "ETHICS: the end date 1788 marks British invasion, not cultural end — Aboriginal peoples continue to exist and resist today. The 'continuous culture' framing also isn't monolithic: there were ~250 distinct Aboriginal nations with their own languages and boundaries at contact. The 'terra nullius' legal doctrine (1788-1992) denied Aboriginal sovereignty; Mabo v Queensland (1992) overturned it.", "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Clarkson, C. et al. (2017). 'Human occupation of northern Australia by 65,000 years ago'. Nature 547: 306-310."}, {"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Pascoe, B. (2014). Dark Emu: Black Seeds. Magabala Books."}]}
+{"id": 33, "name": "Pre-Columbian Era", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "pre-columbian-era", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "era", "region": "americas", "year_start": -15000, "year_end": 1492, "confidence_score": 0.85, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Era of the Americas before Columbus's arrival in 1492. Encompasses the entire span from the peopling of the Americas (~15,000 BCE) through the Classical Maya, Aztec, Inca, Mississippian cultures, and all other indigenous civilizations.", "historiographic_note": "ETHICS: the term 'Pre-Columbian' centers European contact as the defining event. Indigenous American historiography increasingly uses region-specific periodizations that don't frame indigenous history around European arrival.", "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Mann, C. C. (2005). 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus. Knopf."}]}
+{"id": 2, "name": "Mesolithic", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "mesolithic", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "age", "region": "global", "year_start": -10000, "year_end": -5000, "confidence_score": 0.8, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Middle Stone Age, a transitional period between the Paleolithic and Neolithic, spanning the Holocene climate warming. Characterized by microliths, domestication of the dog, and proto-agricultural experimentation.", "historiographic_note": "Used primarily in European archaeology. In some regions (e.g. Near East) the term 'Epipaleolithic' is preferred. Dates vary significantly by region.", "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Bailey, G., & Spikins, P. (2008). Mesolithic Europe. Cambridge University Press."}]}
+{"id": 3, "name": "Neolithic", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "neolithic", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "age", "region": "global", "year_start": -10000, "year_end": -3300, "confidence_score": 0.85, "status": "confirmed", "description": "New Stone Age, defined by the Neolithic Revolution: the transition to agriculture, sedentism, pottery, and animal domestication. Began in the Fertile Crescent and independently in China, Mesoamerica, and the Andes.", "historiographic_note": "The Neolithic started at very different times in different regions. The Near East ~10,000 BCE, Europe ~7,000 BCE, Mesoamerica ~8,000 BCE. 'Neolithic' is less meaningful as a single global period.", "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Bellwood, P. (2005). First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies. Wiley-Blackwell."}]}
+{"id": 4, "name": "Chalcolithic", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "chalcolithic", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "age", "region": "near_east", "year_start": -5000, "year_end": -3300, "confidence_score": 0.8, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Copper Age, transition period between the Neolithic and Bronze Age. Characterized by the first use of native copper, precursor to true bronze metallurgy.", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": [{"name": "Copper Age", "context": "English equivalent"}, {"name": "Eneolithic", "context": "European archaeology usage"}], "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Roberts, B. W., & Thornton, C. P. (2014). Archaeometallurgy in Global Perspective. Springer."}]}
+{"id": 5, "name": "Bronze Age", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "bronze-age", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "age", "region": "global", "year_start": -3300, "year_end": -1200, "confidence_score": 0.9, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Characterized by the use of bronze (copper-tin alloy), the emergence of early civilizations in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Indus Valley, and China, the development of writing systems, and the rise of the first empires. Ended with the Bronze Age Collapse (~1200 BCE) in the Eastern Mediterranean.", "historiographic_note": "Dates vary by region. The Near Eastern Bronze Age (~3300-1200 BCE) differs from the Chinese Bronze Age (~2000-771 BCE during the Shang-Western Zhou). Sub-Saharan Africa largely skipped the Bronze Age.", "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Cline, E. H. (2014). 1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed. Princeton University Press."}]}
+{"id": 51, "name": "Classical Mayan Preclassic", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "preclassic-maya", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "period", "region": "americas", "year_start": -2000, "year_end": 250, "confidence_score": 0.85, "status": "confirmed", "description": "The Preclassic (Formative) Period of Mesoamerican civilization, when Maya society transitioned from village-scale farming to monumental urbanism. Late Preclassic centers like El Mirador, Nakbé, and Cival developed massive public architecture, hieroglyphic precursors, and elaborate political systems. Collapses around 150-250 CE mark the transition to the Classic Period.", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Estrada-Belli, F. (2011). The First Maya Civilization: Ritual and Power Before the Classic Period. Routledge."}]}
+{"id": 49, "name": "Lapita Cultural Complex", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "lapita-cultural-complex", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "age", "region": "oceania", "year_start": -1600, "year_end": -500, "confidence_score": 0.85, "status": "confirmed", "description": "The Lapita culture (c. 1600-500 BCE) was the ancestral culture of Austronesian seafarers who colonized most of Remote Oceania, from the Bismarck Archipelago across Vanuatu, Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa. Characterized by distinctive dentate-stamped pottery, outrigger canoes, and domesticated animals (pig, dog, chicken). Represents one of the most rapid maritime expansions in human prehistory.", "historiographic_note": "The Lapita expansion is sometimes called the 'fastest and farthest colonization in human history before industrial shipping' — covering ~4,500km of open Pacific Ocean in ~1,000 years. Named after the type site at Lapita in New Caledonia.", "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Kirch, P. V. (2017). On the Road of the Winds: An Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands before European Contact. University of California Press."}]}
+{"id": 6, "name": "Iron Age", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "iron-age", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "age", "region": "global", "year_start": -1200, "year_end": -550, "confidence_score": 0.85, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Period defined by widespread iron smelting and tool production. Began in Anatolia, spread across Europe, the Near East, and Asia. Saw the rise of Assyria, the Neo-Babylonian empire, the Achaemenid Persian Empire, the Greek Archaic Period, and the foundation of Rome.", "historiographic_note": "Highly region-dependent. Sub-Saharan Africa developed iron metallurgy independently around 1000 BCE (Nok culture). The Americas entered an Iron Age only after European contact.", "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Collis, J. (2003). The European Iron Age. Routledge."}]}
+{"id": 7, "name": "Archaic Period (Greece)", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "archaic-greece", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "period", "region": "europe", "year_start": -800, "year_end": -480, "confidence_score": 0.9, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Greek Archaic Period: the rise of the polis (city-state), Greek colonization across the Mediterranean and Black Sea, the development of Greek alphabet from Phoenician, the first Olympic Games (776 BCE), and the emergence of philosophy and the beginning of recorded history.", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Osborne, R. (2009). Greece in the Making, 1200-479 BC. Routledge."}]}
+{"id": 34, "name": "Kingdom of Kush", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "kingdom-of-kush", "name_native": "Meroitic Kush", "name_native_lang": "mey", "period_type": "period", "region": "africa", "year_start": -785, "year_end": 350, "confidence_score": 0.85, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Ancient Nubian kingdom south of Egypt, with successive capitals at Napata and Meroe. Ruled Egypt itself as the 25th Dynasty (~747-656 BCE), developed the Meroitic script, and controlled trans-Saharan trade. Ended with the rise of Aksum.", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Welsby, D. A. (1996). The Kingdom of Kush: The Napatan and Meroitic Empires. British Museum Press."}]}
+{"id": 27, "name": "Spring and Autumn Period", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "spring-and-autumn-period", "name_native": "春秋時代", "name_native_lang": "zh", "period_type": "period", "region": "asia_east", "year_start": -771, "year_end": -476, "confidence_score": 0.9, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Period of the Eastern Zhou dynasty in China, named after the Spring and Autumn Annals chronicle. Characterized by fragmentation into competing states, the emergence of Confucianism and Daoism, and technological advances.", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Hsu, C. Y. (1999). 'The Spring and Autumn Period'. In The Cambridge History of Ancient China. Cambridge University Press."}]}
+{"id": 8, "name": "Classical Antiquity", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "classical-antiquity", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "era", "region": "europe", "year_start": -510, "year_end": 476, "confidence_score": 0.9, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Broad era spanning Classical Greece, the Hellenistic period, and the Roman Republic and Empire. Saw the rise of Athenian democracy, the conquests of Alexander the Great, the Roman Empire at its apex, and ends with the fall of the Western Roman Empire.", "historiographic_note": "The term is Eurocentric. The same dates encompass the Han Dynasty in China, the Gupta Empire in India, and many other civilizations that are not part of 'Classical Antiquity'.", "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Cartledge, P. (2002). The Greeks: A Portrait of Self and Others. Oxford University Press."}]}
+{"id": 11, "name": "Roman Republic", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "roman-republic", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "period", "region": "europe", "year_start": -509, "year_end": -27, "confidence_score": 0.95, "status": "confirmed", "description": "From the overthrow of the Roman monarchy (509 BCE traditional) to the establishment of the principate under Augustus (27 BCE). Saw Rome expand from an Italian city-state to a Mediterranean empire through the Punic Wars and civil wars.", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Scullard, H. H. (1982). From the Gracchi to Nero. Routledge."}]}
+{"id": 9, "name": "Classical Period (Greece)", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "classical-greece", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "period", "region": "europe", "year_start": -480, "year_end": -323, "confidence_score": 0.95, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Greek Classical Period: from the end of the Greco-Persian Wars (Battle of Salamis, 480 BCE) to the death of Alexander the Great (323 BCE). The age of Periclean Athens, the Peloponnesian War, Plato, Aristotle, and the conquests of Alexander.", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Hornblower, S. (2011). The Greek World 479-323 BC. Routledge."}]}
+{"id": 28, "name": "Warring States Period", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "warring-states-period", "name_native": "戰國時代", "name_native_lang": "zh", "period_type": "period", "region": "asia_east", "year_start": -475, "year_end": -221, "confidence_score": 0.9, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Chinese period of intense warfare among seven major states (Qin, Zhao, Wei, Han, Chu, Yan, Qi), ending with Qin's unification under Shi Huangdi. Saw the flourishing of the Hundred Schools of Thought (philosophy) and the creation of the Art of War by Sun Tzu.", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Lewis, M. E. (1999). 'Warring States Political History'. In The Cambridge History of Ancient China. Cambridge University Press."}]}
+{"id": 10, "name": "Hellenistic Period", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "hellenistic-period", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "period", "region": "europe", "year_start": -323, "year_end": -31, "confidence_score": 0.95, "status": "confirmed", "description": "From the death of Alexander the Great (323 BCE) to the Roman annexation of Ptolemaic Egypt after the Battle of Actium (31 BCE). Saw Greek culture spread across the Mediterranean, Near East, and Central Asia through the successor kingdoms (Ptolemaic, Seleucid, Antigonid).", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Walbank, F. W. (1993). The Hellenistic World. Harvard University Press."}]}
+{"id": 12, "name": "Roman Empire (Principate)", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "roman-empire-principate", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "period", "region": "europe", "year_start": -27, "year_end": 284, "confidence_score": 0.95, "status": "confirmed", "description": "From Augustus' settlement (27 BCE) establishing the principate to the accession of Diocletian (284 CE). The classical Roman Empire at its territorial apex under Trajan, followed by the Crisis of the Third Century.", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Beard, M. (2015). SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome. Profile Books."}]}
+{"id": 35, "name": "Aksumite Empire Era", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "aksumite-empire-era", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "period", "region": "africa", "year_start": 100, "year_end": 940, "confidence_score": 0.9, "status": "confirmed", "description": "North African empire centered in modern Ethiopia-Eritrea. Controlled Red Sea trade, adopted Christianity in the 4th century under Ezana, and produced monumental stelae. Identified by Mani as one of the four great powers of its time (with Rome, Persia, and China).", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Phillipson, D. W. (2012). Foundations of an African Civilisation: Aksum and the northern Horn, 1000 BC - AD 1300. James Currey."}]}
+{"id": 42, "name": "Classic Maya Period", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "classic-maya-period", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "period", "region": "americas", "year_start": 250, "year_end": 900, "confidence_score": 0.95, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Peak of Maya civilization in Mesoamerica (modern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras). Characterized by hieroglyphic writing, astronomy, mathematics (including zero), monumental architecture, and politically fragmented city-states (Tikal, Palenque, Calakmul, Copán). Terminal Classic 'collapse' (~750-900) reshaped the region.", "historiographic_note": "The 'Maya collapse' was not total — Maya civilization continued in the Postclassic Period in the Yucatán and survives today in the descendants of Maya peoples.", "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Sharer, R. J., & Traxler, L. P. (2006). The Ancient Maya. Stanford University Press."}]}
+{"id": 13, "name": "Late Antiquity", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "late-antiquity", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "era", "region": "europe", "year_start": 284, "year_end": 641, "confidence_score": 0.9, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Period from Diocletian's reforms (284 CE) to the early Islamic conquests (ending with the Arab-Sasanian Wars and death of Heraclius, 641 CE). Saw the Christianization of the Roman Empire, the fall of the Western Empire, and the transformation into the Byzantine and Islamic worlds.", "historiographic_note": "Coined by Peter Brown (1971) as a positive alternative to 'Decline and Fall' narratives. Now the standard periodization for this transitional period.", "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Brown, P. (1971). The World of Late Antiquity. Thames & Hudson."}]}
+{"id": 48, "name": "Gupta Empire Era", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "gupta-empire-era", "name_native": "गुप्त साम्राज्य", "name_native_lang": "sa", "period_type": "period", "region": "asia_south", "year_start": 320, "year_end": 550, "confidence_score": 0.9, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Ancient Indian empire founded by Chandragupta I, covering much of north and central India. Traditionally called the Indian 'classical age' for its flourishing of science (Aryabhata computed π to 4 decimals, proposed heliocentric ideas), literature (Kalidasa), and mathematics (decimal notation, concept of zero). Declined under Hun invasions.", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Kulke, H., & Rothermund, D. (2004). A History of India (4th ed.). Routledge."}]}
+{"id": 14, "name": "Early Middle Ages", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "early-middle-ages", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "period", "region": "europe", "year_start": 500, "year_end": 1000, "confidence_score": 0.9, "status": "confirmed", "description": "European period from the fall of the Western Roman Empire to approximately 1000 CE. Saw the rise of successor kingdoms (Frankish, Visigothic, Ostrogothic), Byzantine consolidation, Islamic expansion, Charlemagne's coronation (800 CE), and Viking activity.", "historiographic_note": "The term 'Dark Ages' has been largely abandoned in scholarship because it reflects Renaissance prejudice. 'Early Middle Ages' is the preferred neutral term.", "alternative_names": [{"name": "Dark Ages", "context": "Older historiographic term now considered pejorative and inaccurate"}], "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Wickham, C. (2009). The Inheritance of Rome: Illuminating the Dark Ages 400-1000. Allen Lane."}]}
+{"id": 46, "name": "Tang Dynasty Era", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "tang-dynasty-era", "name_native": "唐朝", "name_native_lang": "zh", "period_type": "period", "region": "asia_east", "year_start": 618, "year_end": 907, "confidence_score": 0.95, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Chinese dynasty considered the golden age of cosmopolitan culture — unmatched poetry (Li Bai, Du Fu), Buddhism's peak influence, the woodblock printing of the Diamond Sutra (868), and the tributary system reaching Korea, Japan, Vietnam. Capital Chang'an was the world's largest city.", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Lewis, M. E. (2009). China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty. Harvard University Press."}]}
+{"id": 40, "name": "Srivijaya Era", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "srivijaya-era", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "period", "region": "asia_southeast", "year_start": 650, "year_end": 1377, "confidence_score": 0.85, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Maritime Buddhist empire based in Sumatra, controlling the Strait of Malacca and regional trade. Major center of Mahayana Buddhist learning, visited by Chinese monk Yijing in 671 CE. Gradually declined under pressure from the Chola invasions (1025) and the rise of Majapahit.", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Munoz, P. M. (2006). Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula. Editions Didier Millet."}]}
+{"id": 17, "name": "Islamic Golden Age", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "islamic-golden-age", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "era", "region": "near_east", "year_start": 750, "year_end": 1258, "confidence_score": 0.9, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Period of cultural, economic, and scientific flourishing in Islamic history, traditionally dated from the Abbasid Caliphate's rise (750) to the Mongol sack of Baghdad (1258). Saw major advances in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, philosophy, and the preservation and translation of Greek learning.", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Lyons, J. (2010). The House of Wisdom: How the Arabs Transformed Western Civilization. Bloomsbury."}]}
+{"id": 29, "name": "Heian Period", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "heian-period", "name_native": "平安時代", "name_native_lang": "ja", "period_type": "period", "region": "asia_east", "year_start": 794, "year_end": 1185, "confidence_score": 0.95, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Japanese period named after the capital Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto). Peak of Japanese imperial court, emergence of unique Japanese aesthetics (kana writing, The Tale of Genji), and the rise of the samurai class. Ended with the Genpei War and the establishment of the Kamakura shogunate.", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Shively, D. H., & McCullough, W. H. (Eds.). (1999). The Cambridge History of Japan, Volume 2: Heian Japan. Cambridge University Press."}]}
+{"id": 45, "name": "Mississippian Culture", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "mississippian-culture", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "period", "region": "americas", "year_start": 800, "year_end": 1600, "confidence_score": 0.85, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Complex Native American cultural tradition of the eastern and midwestern United States. Characterized by maize agriculture, earthwork mounds, chiefdoms, and extensive trade networks. Cahokia (near modern St. Louis) was the largest urban center with ~20,000 people at its peak (~1100 CE).", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Pauketat, T. R. (2009). Cahokia: Ancient America's Great City on the Mississippi. Viking."}]}
+{"id": 39, "name": "Angkor Period", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "angkor-period", "name_native": "យុគអង្គរ", "name_native_lang": "km", "period_type": "period", "region": "asia_southeast", "year_start": 802, "year_end": 1431, "confidence_score": 0.95, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Khmer Empire era centered on Angkor (modern Cambodia). Founded by Jayavarman II in 802, produced monumental temples (Angkor Wat, Angkor Thom, Bayon) and controlled much of mainland Southeast Asia. Sacked by Ayutthaya in 1431, leading to capital relocation.", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Coe, M. D. (2003). Angkor and the Khmer Civilization. Thames & Hudson."}]}
+{"id": 50, "name": "Polynesian Expansion", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "polynesian-expansion", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "era", "region": "oceania", "year_start": 900, "year_end": 1300, "confidence_score": 0.9, "status": "confirmed", "description": "The long-range navigation and colonization of Remote Polynesia (Hawaii, Easter Island/Rapa Nui, New Zealand/Aotearoa) from the Society Islands core. The last continent-scale human expansion before industrialization. Double-hulled canoes, stellar navigation, and systematic settlement including Hawaii (~900-1000 CE), Easter Island (~1200 CE), Aotearoa (~1280-1300 CE).", "historiographic_note": "Thor Heyerdahl's drift-voyaging hypothesis (Kon-Tiki, 1947) is now firmly rejected by archaeological, linguistic, and genetic evidence — Polynesians were deliberate, skilled navigators moving east from a western Pacific homeland, not passive drift from South America.", "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Matisoo-Smith, E. & Gosling, A. L. (2019). 'The Polynesian Expansion Settling New Lands'. Journal of Human Evolution."}]}
+{"id": 47, "name": "Song Dynasty Era", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "song-dynasty-era", "name_native": "宋朝", "name_native_lang": "zh", "period_type": "period", "region": "asia_east", "year_start": 960, "year_end": 1279, "confidence_score": 0.95, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Chinese dynasty marked by scientific innovation (moveable type printing, gunpowder military use, magnetic compass navigation, early industrial revolution in iron production). First government-issued paper currency. Population reached 100 million. Northern Song (960-1127) lost north China to the Jin; Southern Song (1127-1279) fell to the Mongols.", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Kuhn, D. (2009). The Age of Confucian Rule: The Song Transformation of China. Harvard University Press."}]}
+{"id": 15, "name": "High Middle Ages", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "high-middle-ages", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "period", "region": "europe", "year_start": 1000, "year_end": 1300, "confidence_score": 0.9, "status": "confirmed", "description": "European period characterized by population growth, urbanization, founding of universities, Gothic architecture, the Crusades, the rise of the High Medieval papacy, and the development of feudalism and the three-field system.", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Bartlett, R. (1993). The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization and Cultural Change, 950-1350. Penguin."}]}
+{"id": 53, "name": "Mississippian Cultural Apex", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "mississippian-apex", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "period", "region": "americas", "year_start": 1050, "year_end": 1350, "confidence_score": 0.9, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Peak phase of the Mississippian cultural tradition in eastern North America, centered on Cahokia (near modern St. Louis). At its height ~1100 CE, Cahokia had 10,000-20,000 inhabitants, making it larger than contemporary London. Monumental earthwork mounds (Monks Mound = 30m tall, world's largest pre-Columbian earthwork), maize agriculture, extensive trade networks stretching from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico.", "historiographic_note": "For centuries, Euro-American archaeologists attributed Mississippian earthworks to 'a lost civilization' rather than the ancestors of contemporary Native American nations — a racist framing that the 19th-century Mound Builder myth enshrined. Modern scholarship firmly places Mississippian culture within indigenous North American continuity.", "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Pauketat, T. R. (2009). Cahokia: Ancient America's Great City on the Mississippi. Viking."}]}
+{"id": 37, "name": "Great Zimbabwe Era", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "great-zimbabwe-era", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "period", "region": "africa", "year_start": 1100, "year_end": 1450, "confidence_score": 0.9, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Southern African kingdom centered on the stone city of Great Zimbabwe, which housed up to 18,000 people at its peak. Controlled gold trade to the Swahili Coast and exported to the Indian Ocean world. Mysterious decline possibly due to overgrazing, political shifts, or trade route changes.", "historiographic_note": "Colonial-era European scholarship denied African origins of Great Zimbabwe for decades, a position disproven by archaeology in the mid-20th century.", "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Pikirayi, I. (2001). The Zimbabwe Culture: Origins and Decline of Southern Zambezian States. AltaMira Press."}]}
+{"id": 38, "name": "Swahili Coast Golden Age", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "swahili-coast-golden-age", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "period", "region": "africa", "year_start": 1100, "year_end": 1498, "confidence_score": 0.9, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Flourishing of a chain of Swahili city-states (Kilwa, Mombasa, Mogadishu, Sofala, Zanzibar) along the East African coast. Hybrid Bantu-Arab culture trading with the Indian Ocean world. Ended with Vasco da Gama's arrival and Portuguese conquests.", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Horton, M., & Middleton, J. (2000). The Swahili: The Social Landscape of a Mercantile Society. Wiley-Blackwell."}]}
+{"id": 36, "name": "Mali Empire Era", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "mali-empire-era", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "period", "region": "africa", "year_start": 1235, "year_end": 1670, "confidence_score": 0.9, "status": "confirmed", "description": "West African empire founded by Sundiata Keita after defeating the Sosso at the Battle of Kirina. Controlled the trans-Saharan gold-salt trade. Under Mansa Musa (r. 1312-1337) became famously wealthy, with his Hajj to Mecca in 1324 reportedly causing gold inflation in Cairo. Timbuktu became a major center of Islamic learning.", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Levtzion, N. (1973). Ancient Ghana and Mali. Methuen."}]}
+{"id": 55, "name": "Ethiopian Solomonic Period", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "ethiopian-solomonic-period", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "period", "region": "africa", "year_start": 1270, "year_end": 1974, "confidence_score": 0.9, "status": "confirmed", "description": "The rule of the Solomonic dynasty over the Ethiopian Empire, dating from Yekuno Amlak's 1270 seizure of power (replacing the Zagwe dynasty) until the 1974 revolution that deposed Haile Selassie I. One of the longest-ruling dynasties in history, claiming descent from King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba via Menelik I. Maintained Ethiopian independence through the European Scramble for Africa (except 1936-1941 Italian occupation).", "historiographic_note": "The Solomonic dynasty's claimed Biblical descent is foundational mythology (Kebra Nagast, 14th century) rather than documented genealogy. Ethiopia's victory over Italy at Adwa (1 March 1896) was a unique African victory against European colonization and a symbolic beacon of anti-colonial struggle.", "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Marcus, H. G. (1994). A History of Ethiopia. University of California Press."}]}
+{"id": 41, "name": "Majapahit Period", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "majapahit-period", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "period", "region": "asia_southeast", "year_start": 1293, "year_end": 1527, "confidence_score": 0.9, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Hindu-Buddhist thalassocracy based in Java, considered the largest precolonial empire of island Southeast Asia. Peak under Hayam Wuruk (r. 1350-1389) and his prime minister Gajah Mada. Declined with the spread of Islam in the archipelago.", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Ricklefs, M. C. (2008). A History of Modern Indonesia Since c. 1200. Palgrave Macmillan."}]}
+{"id": 16, "name": "Late Middle Ages", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "late-middle-ages", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "period", "region": "europe", "year_start": 1300, "year_end": 1500, "confidence_score": 0.9, "status": "confirmed", "description": "European period marked by the Black Death (1347-1351), the Hundred Years' War, the Western Schism, the fall of Constantinople (1453), and the early Italian Renaissance. Ended approximately with the European discovery of the Americas (1492).", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Allmand, C. (Ed.). (1998). The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume 7. Cambridge University Press."}]}
+{"id": 18, "name": "Renaissance", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "renaissance", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "era", "region": "europe", "year_start": 1300, "year_end": 1600, "confidence_score": 0.9, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Cultural, artistic, political, and economic rebirth that began in late medieval Italy and spread across Europe. Characterized by the rediscovery of classical antiquity, humanism, scientific innovation, and artistic masters like Leonardo, Michelangelo, and Raphael.", "historiographic_note": "The term 'Renaissance' (rinascimento) was popularized by Jacob Burckhardt (1860). Some historians challenge the 'rebirth' framing as underselling medieval continuity.", "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Burke, P. (2014). The Italian Renaissance: Culture and Society in Italy. Princeton University Press."}]}
+{"id": 20, "name": "Age of Discovery", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "age-of-discovery", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "era", "region": "global", "year_start": 1418, "year_end": 1620, "confidence_score": 0.9, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Period of extensive European maritime exploration, beginning with Portuguese voyages along the African coast (1418) and including Columbus (1492), Vasco da Gama (1498), Magellan (1519-1522). Led to the establishment of European colonial empires and the Columbian Exchange.", "historiographic_note": "ETHICS: the term centers the European perspective. For indigenous peoples in the Americas, Africa, Asia, and Oceania, this period represents conquest, genocide, slavery, and cultural destruction — see the 'Age of Colonialism' framing.", "alternative_names": [{"name": "Age of Exploration", "context": "Common English alternative"}, {"name": "Age of Colonialism", "context": "Critical historiography framing"}], "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Parry, J. H. (1981). The Age of Reconnaissance: Discovery, Exploration and Settlement 1450-1650. University of California Press."}]}
+{"id": 43, "name": "Aztec Imperial Period", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "aztec-imperial-period", "name_native": "Mēxihcah", "name_native_lang": "nah", "period_type": "period", "region": "americas", "year_start": 1428, "year_end": 1521, "confidence_score": 0.95, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Mexica (Aztec) Triple Alliance (Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, Tlacopan) dominated central Mexico from 1428 until the Spanish conquest under Cortés. Capital Tenochtitlan was one of the largest cities in the world at contact (~200,000 people). Complex tributary empire, sophisticated calendar, causeways, and floating gardens (chinampas).", "historiographic_note": "ETHICS: 'Aztec' is a modern convention; the people called themselves Mēxihcah. Spanish accounts of practices like human sacrifice should be read critically — they served as conquest justifications.", "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Townsend, R. F. (2009). The Aztecs. Thames & Hudson."}]}
+{"id": 44, "name": "Inca Imperial Period", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "inca-imperial-period", "name_native": "Tawantinsuyu", "name_native_lang": "qu", "period_type": "period", "region": "americas", "year_start": 1438, "year_end": 1533, "confidence_score": 0.95, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Tawantinsuyu ('four parts together'), the largest empire of pre-Columbian Americas, spanning from modern Colombia to central Chile along the Andes. Capital Cusco. Rapid expansion under Pachacuti and successors. Fell to Pizarro and smallpox epidemics by 1533.", "historiographic_note": "ETHICS: Estimates suggest the Inca population was 10-12 million before Spanish contact; post-conquest demographic collapse (disease + violence) reduced this by 90%+ over a century.", "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "D'Altroy, T. N. (2014). The Incas. Wiley-Blackwell."}]}
+{"id": 32, "name": "Ottoman Classical Age", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "ottoman-classical-age", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "period", "region": "near_east", "year_start": 1453, "year_end": 1606, "confidence_score": 0.9, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Peak of Ottoman imperial power, from the conquest of Constantinople (1453) to the Treaty of Zsitvatorok (1606) which marked the end of Habsburg inferiority. Includes the reigns of Mehmed II, Selim I, and Suleiman the Magnificent.", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Imber, C. (2002). The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Palgrave Macmillan."}]}
+{"id": 54, "name": "Songhai Empire Era", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "songhai-empire-era", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "period", "region": "africa", "year_start": 1464, "year_end": 1591, "confidence_score": 0.9, "status": "confirmed", "description": "The Songhai Empire at its apex, succeeding the Mali Empire as the dominant West African power. Founded by Sunni Ali's conquests (r. 1464-1492), extended by Askia Muhammad (r. 1493-1528). Controlled the trans-Saharan gold-salt trade through Timbuktu, Gao, and Djenné. Ended abruptly at the Battle of Tondibi (1591) when Moroccan Saadian forces defeated the Songhai army with firearms.", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Saad, E. N. (1983). Social History of Timbuktu: The Role of Muslim Scholars and Notables 1400-1900. Cambridge University Press."}]}
+{"id": 19, "name": "Early Modern Period", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "early-modern-period", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "era", "region": "europe", "year_start": 1500, "year_end": 1800, "confidence_score": 0.9, "status": "confirmed", "description": "European period from the end of the Middle Ages to the French Revolution. Saw the Reformation, the Scientific Revolution, the Age of Discovery, the rise of absolutist monarchies, the Thirty Years' War, and the Enlightenment.", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Parker, G. (2013). Global Crisis: War, Climate Change and Catastrophe in the Seventeenth Century. Yale University Press."}]}
+{"id": 31, "name": "Mughal Era", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "mughal-era", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "era", "region": "asia_south", "year_start": 1526, "year_end": 1857, "confidence_score": 0.95, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Period of Mughal imperial rule in South Asia, from Babur's victory at Panipat (1526) to the deposition of Bahadur Shah II after the 1857 rebellion. Peak under Akbar (r. 1556-1605), Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb. Saw architectural wonders (Taj Mahal), syncretic culture, and eventual decline before British ascendancy.", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Richards, J. F. (1993). The Mughal Empire. Cambridge University Press."}]}
+{"id": 30, "name": "Edo Period", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "edo-period", "name_native": "江戸時代", "name_native_lang": "ja", "period_type": "period", "region": "asia_east", "year_start": 1603, "year_end": 1868, "confidence_score": 0.95, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Japanese period of Tokugawa shogunate rule, characterized by the policy of sakoku (national isolation), a rigid four-class social system, economic growth, urbanization of Edo (Tokyo), and flourishing urban culture (kabuki, ukiyo-e, haiku). Ended with the Meiji Restoration.", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Jansen, M. B. (Ed.). (1989). The Cambridge History of Japan, Volume 5: The Nineteenth Century. Cambridge University Press."}]}
+{"id": 21, "name": "Age of Enlightenment", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "age-of-enlightenment", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "era", "region": "europe", "year_start": 1685, "year_end": 1815, "confidence_score": 0.9, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Intellectual and philosophical movement centered on reason, science, liberty, constitutional government, and separation of church and state. Key figures: Locke, Voltaire, Rousseau, Kant, Hume, Smith. Catalyzed the American and French Revolutions.", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Israel, J. I. (2001). Radical Enlightenment: Philosophy and the Making of Modernity 1650-1750. Oxford University Press."}]}
+{"id": 22, "name": "Industrial Revolution", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "industrial-revolution", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "era", "region": "europe", "year_start": 1760, "year_end": 1840, "confidence_score": 0.9, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Transition to new manufacturing processes in Britain and Europe, characterized by the steam engine, mechanized textile production, iron and steel industries, railway expansion, and urbanization. Fundamentally transformed global economy, society, and environment.", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Allen, R. C. (2009). The British Industrial Revolution in Global Perspective. Cambridge University Press."}]}
+{"id": 23, "name": "Victorian Era", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "victorian-era", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "period", "region": "europe", "year_start": 1837, "year_end": 1901, "confidence_score": 0.95, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Period of Queen Victoria's reign in the United Kingdom and British Empire. Characterized by industrial expansion, colonial empire at its apex, scientific advances (Darwin), significant social reform movements, and distinctive cultural output.", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Hobsbawm, E. (1975). The Age of Capital: 1848-1875. Weidenfeld & Nicolson."}]}
+{"id": 24, "name": "Belle Époque", "name_lang": "fr", "slug": "belle-epoque", "name_native": "Belle Époque", "name_native_lang": "fr", "period_type": "period", "region": "europe", "year_start": 1871, "year_end": 1914, "confidence_score": 0.9, "status": "confirmed", "description": "French historiographic term for the period between the end of the Franco-Prussian War and the outbreak of World War I. Characterized by peace among great powers, technological progress, artistic flourishing (Impressionism, Art Nouveau), and growing colonial empires.", "historiographic_note": "A retrospective idealization — the period was 'beautiful' primarily for the European bourgeoisie and saw accelerating colonial violence in Africa and Asia.", "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Nord, P. (2002). The Republican Moment: Struggles for Democracy in Nineteenth-Century France. Harvard University Press."}]}
+{"id": 25, "name": "Interwar Period", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "interwar-period", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "period", "region": "global", "year_start": 1918, "year_end": 1939, "confidence_score": 0.95, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Period between World War I (ended 1918) and World War II (began 1939). Characterized by the Treaty of Versailles, Weimar Germany, the Russian Revolution's aftermath, the Great Depression (1929), the rise of fascism in Italy and Germany, and colonial independence movements.", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Overy, R. (2009). The Twilight Years: The Paradox of Britain Between the Wars. Viking."}]}
+{"id": 26, "name": "Cold War", "name_lang": "en", "slug": "cold-war", "name_native": null, "name_native_lang": null, "period_type": "era", "region": "global", "year_start": 1947, "year_end": 1991, "confidence_score": 0.95, "status": "confirmed", "description": "Geopolitical tension between the United States and Soviet Union (and their respective allies) following WWII, ending with the dissolution of the USSR. Characterized by ideological conflict, nuclear arms race, proxy wars (Korea, Vietnam, Afghanistan), and decolonization.", "historiographic_note": null, "alternative_names": null, "sources": [{"type": "ACADEMIC", "citation": "Gaddis, J. L. (2005). The Cold War: A New History. Penguin Press."}]}